Deliverance from Error
{"WorkMasterId":4657,"WpPageId":234411,"ParentWpPageId":193940,"Slug":"deliverance-from-error","Url":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/philosophers/abu-hamid-al-ghazali/deliverance-from-error/","RelativeUrl":"theos/humanities/philosophy/philosophers/abu-hamid-al-ghazali/deliverance-from-error/","HasFullText":true,"RawHtmlLength":163694,"CleanHtmlLength":107584,"Kicker":"Philosophy Work","Title":"Deliverance from Error","Deck":"Argues that certainty cannot rest on imitation alone and that demonstrative reason must be completed by spiritual experience.","BackLink":{"Text":"Back to Abu Hamid al-Ghazali","Url":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/philosophers/abu-hamid-al-ghazali/"},"AuthorCard":{"Label":"Author","Title":"Abu Hamid al-Ghazali","Url":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/philosophers/abu-hamid-al-ghazali/","MediaHref":"","ImageSrc":"https://chrisdeasy.com/wp-content/uploads/abu-hamid-al-ghazali-01-ihya-ulum-al-din-14th-century-manuscript-leaf.jpg","ImageAlt":"Ihya ulum al-din Manuscript Leaf","FilterTerra":"Persia","ClickText":"Abu Hamid al-Ghazali","ClickHref":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/philosophers/abu-hamid-al-ghazali/","Copies":["1058 CE – 1111 CE","Tus, Khorasan","Persian Sunni theologian, jurist, mystic, and philosopher whose work transformed kalam, ethics, logic, Sufism, and the reception of Avicennian philosophy."]},"ContextCards":[{"Label":"Period","Key":"Period:2","Title":"Medieval History","DateText":"500 CE – 1499 CE","Url":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/eras-of-thought/philosophers-of-medieval-history/"},{"Label":"Era","Key":"Era:5","Title":"High Medieval","DateText":"1000 CE – 1299 CE","Url":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/eras-of-thought/philosophers-of-medieval-history/philosophers-of-high-medieval/"},{"Label":"Composition","Title":"1108 CE","Url":"","DateText":""}],"DateNote":"","GeoCards":[{"Label":"Region","Key":"Region:2"},{"Label":"Terra Avita","Key":"TerraAvita:3"},{"Label":"Terra Avita Region","Key":"TerraAvitaRegion:13"},{"Label":"Modern Country","Key":"Country:IRN:3"}],"OriginalTitle":"al-Munqidh min al-dalal","Language":"Arabic","DisciplineCards":[{"Label":"Primary Discipline","Key":"Discipline:epistemology"},{"Label":"Secondary Discipline","Key":"Discipline:philosophy-of-religion"}],"Tradition":"Islamic philosophy; Sufism","FullText":{"Title":"Full Text","Copy":"Public-domain full text from Project Gutenberg eBook #58977 .","Url":"","Label":"","Kicker":"","Cards":[]},"CoreThesis":["Argues that certainty cannot rest on imitation alone and that demonstrative reason must be completed by spiritual experience."],"Classification":{"AlternateTitles":"al-Munqidh min al-dalal","KeyConcepts":"certainty, doubt, taqlid, demonstration, Sufi experience, taste","Methodology":"Autobiographical epistemic inquiry","Structure":"Confessional treatise"},"Arguments":["Critique of inherited belief; classification of theologians, philosophers, esoterics, and Sufis"],"Influence":{"InfluencedBy":"Sufi practice, kalam, falsafa","InfluenceOn":""},"Significance":["The central source for al-Ghazali crisis of certainty and his mature hierarchy of knowledge.","Read in comparative epistemology, religious autobiography, skepticism, and philosophy of mystical experience."],"EvidenceNote":[],"MainSections":[{"Kind":"RawSection","Title":"Full Versions","BodyHtml":"\u003cdiv class=\"dz-philo__full-version-grid\"\u003e\n \u003carticle class=\"dz-philo__full-version-card\"\u003e\n \u003cp class=\"dz-philo__full-version-provider\"\u003eProject Gutenberg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ch3 class=\"dz-philo__full-version-title\"\u003eProject Gutenberg eBook #58977\u003c/h3\u003e\n \u003cp class=\"dz-philo__full-version-meta\"\u003eHtmlText · Imported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ca class=\"dz-philo__full-version-link\" href=\"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/58977\"\u003eOpen full version\u003c/a\u003e\n \u003c/article\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e"},{"Kind":"TextSection","Title":"Core Thesis","Paragraphs":["Argues that certainty cannot rest on imitation alone and that demonstrative reason must be completed by spiritual experience."]},{"Kind":"FieldSection","Title":"Classification","Fields":[{"Label":"Alternate Titles","Value":"al-Munqidh min al-dalal"},{"Label":"Key Concepts","Value":"certainty, doubt, taqlid, demonstration, Sufi experience, taste"},{"Label":"Methodology","Value":"Autobiographical epistemic inquiry"},{"Label":"Structure","Value":"Confessional treatise"}]},{"Kind":"TextSection","Title":"Arguments","Paragraphs":["Critique of inherited belief; classification of theologians, philosophers, esoterics, and Sufis"]},{"Kind":"FieldSection","Title":"Influence","Fields":[{"Label":"Influenced By","Value":"Sufi practice, kalam, falsafa"},{"Label":"Influence On","Value":"Later Islamic accounts of doubt, certainty, and spiritual knowledge"}]},{"Kind":"TextSection","Title":"Significance","Paragraphs":["The central source for al-Ghazali crisis of certainty and his mature hierarchy of knowledge.","Read in comparative epistemology, religious autobiography, skepticism, and philosophy of mystical experience."]},{"Kind":"RawSection","Title":"Full Text","BodyHtml":"\u003cp class=\"dz-philo__section-copy dz-philo__full-text-source\"\u003ePublic-domain full text from \u003ca href=\"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/58977\"\u003eProject Gutenberg eBook #58977\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003carticle class=\"dz-philo__full-text-body\"\u003e\r\n\u003cpre\u003e\u003c/pre\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_1\"\u003e[1]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"max25\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"gothic larger\"\u003eThe Wisdom of the East Series\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"noindent\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eEdited by\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\r\nL. CRANMER-BYNG\u003cbr\u003e\r\nDr. S. A. KAPADIA\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"titlepage larger\"\u003eTHE CONFESSIONS OF\u003cbr\u003e\r\nAL GHAZZALI\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_2\"\u003e[2]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"max25\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003e“He who knows himself knows God.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"right\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eSayings of Muhammed.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_3\"\u003e[3]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003eWISDOM OF THE EAST\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center larger\"\u003eTHE CONFESSIONS OF\u003cbr\u003e\r\nAL GHAZZALI\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"titlepage\"\u003eTRANSLATED FOR THE FIRST TIME\u003cbr\u003e\r\nINTO ENGLISH\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003eBY CLAUD FIELD, M.A.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"figcenter titlepage\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\r\n\u003cimg alt=\"Drawing of the sun rising in the east\" height=\"100\" src=\"https://chrisdeasy.com/wp-content/uploads/gutenberg-deliverance-from-error-sun.jpg\" width=\"150\" id=\"img_images_sun.jpg\"\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"titlepage\"\u003eLONDON\u003cbr\u003e\r\nJOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.\u003cbr\u003e\r\n1909\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_4\"\u003e[4]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"titlepage smaller\"\u003ePRINTED BY\u003cbr\u003e\r\nHAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD.\u003cbr\u003e\r\nLONDON AND AYLESBURY.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_5\"\u003e[5]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003ch2\u003eCONTENTS\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003ctable data-summary=\"Contents\"\u003e\r\n\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\r\n\u003ctd\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003ctd class=\"tdpg smaller\"\u003ePAGE\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n\u003ctd\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eIntroduction\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003ctd class=\"tdpg\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#INTRODUCTION\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e7\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n\u003ctd\u003eGhazzali’s Search for Truth\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003ctd class=\"tdpg\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#Ghazzalis_Search_for_Truth\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e11\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n\u003ctd\u003eThe Subterfuges of the Sophists\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003ctd class=\"tdpg\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#The_Subterfuges_of_the_Sophists\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e15\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n\u003ctd\u003eThe Different Kinds of Seekers after Truth\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003ctd class=\"tdpg\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#The_Different_Kinds_of_Seekers\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e20\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n\u003ctd\u003eThe Aim of Scholastic Theology and its Results\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003ctd class=\"tdpg\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#The_Aim_of_Scholastic_Theology\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e21\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n\u003ctd\u003eConcerning the Philosophical Sects and the Stigma of Infidelity which attaches to them all\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003ctd class=\"tdpg\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#Concerning_the_Philosophical_Sects\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e25\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n\u003ctd\u003eDivisions of the Philosophic Sciences\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003ctd class=\"tdpg\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#Divisions_of_the_Philosophic_Sciences\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e27\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n\u003ctd\u003eSufism\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003ctd class=\"tdpg\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#Sufism\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e41\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n\u003ctd\u003eThe Reality of Inspiration: its Importance for the Human Race\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003ctd class=\"tdpg\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#The_Reality_of_Inspiration\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e50\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_6\"\u003e[6]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003ch2\u003eEDITORIAL NOTE\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe object of the Editors of this series is a\r\nvery definite one. They desire above all\r\nthings that, in their humble way, these books\r\nshall be the ambassadors of good-will and\r\nunderstanding between East and West—the old\r\nworld of Thought and the new of Action. In\r\nthis endeavour, and in their own sphere, they\r\nare but followers of the highest example in the\r\nland. They are confident that a deeper knowledge\r\nof the great ideals and lofty philosophy\r\nof Oriental thought may help to a revival of\r\nthat true spirit of Charity which neither despises\r\nnor fears the nations of another creed and\r\ncolour. Finally, in thanking press and public\r\nfor the very cordial reception given to the\r\n“Wisdom of the East” Series, they wish to state\r\nthat no pains have been spared to secure the\r\nbest specialists for the treatment of the various\r\nsubjects at hand.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"right\"\u003eL. CRANMER-BYNG.\u003cbr\u003e\r\nS. A. KAPADIA.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eNorthbrook Society,\r\n185 Piccadilly, W.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_7\"\u003e[7]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003ch2 id=\"INTRODUCTION\"\u003eINTRODUCTION\u003cbr\u003e\r\n\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eBirth of Ghazzali\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAboû Hâmid Muhammed Ibn Muhammad Al\r\nGhazzali was born in the city of Tus in\r\nKhorassan, \u003cspan class=\"smcapuc\"\u003eA.D.\u003c/span\u003e 1058, one year after the great\r\npoet and freethinker Abu’ l’ Alā died. He was\r\nthe son of a dealer in cotton thread (Gazzâl),\r\nwhence his name. Losing his father in early life,\r\nhe was confided to the care of a Sufi, whose influence\r\nextended through his subsequent career.\r\nOn finishing his studies he was appointed professor\r\nof theology at Bagdad. Here he achieved\r\nsuch splendid success that all the Imāms became\r\nhis zealous partisans. So great, indeed, was his\r\nrenown, so ardent the admiration he inspired, that\r\nthe Muhammedans sometimes said: “If all the\r\nbooks of Islam were destroyed, it would be but a\r\nslight loss, provided Al Ghazzali’s work on the\r\nRevivification of the Sciences of Religion were\r\npreserved.” The following short treatise gives\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_8\"\u003e[8]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nthe history of the mind of this remarkable man in\r\nhis pursuit of truth. It might not inaptly bear the\r\ntitle “Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit.” In its\r\nintellectual subtlety it bears a certain resemblance\r\nto Newman’s \u003ccite\u003eGrammar of Assent\u003c/cite\u003e, and in its\r\nalmost Puritanical sense of the terrors of the\r\nworld to come, it is akin to Bunyan’s \u003ccite\u003eGrace\r\nAbounding\u003c/cite\u003e. It is also interesting as being one\r\nof the very few specimens of genuine Eastern\r\nautobiography.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAfter describing the difficulty with which he\r\nescaped from an almost Pyrrhonic scepticism,\r\n“not by systematic reasoning and accumulation\r\nof proofs, but by a flash of light which God sent\r\ninto my soul,” he reviews the various sects whom\r\nhe encountered in his search for truth.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eI. The scholastic theologians, who profess to\r\nfollow reason and speculation.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eII. The philosophers, who call themselves\r\nmasters of Logic and Demonstration.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eIII. The Sufis, who claim an immediate intuition,\r\nand who perceive the real manifestation\r\nof truth as common men perceive material phenomena.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAfter mastering the first two systems and\r\nstill finding the great problem unsolved, he was\r\nforced to pronounce philosophy incompetent,\r\nand to seek in some higher faculty than reason\r\nthe solution of his doubts. The intuition or\r\necstasy (“wajd”) of the Sufis was to him a sort\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_9\"\u003e[9]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nof revelation. His search for truth occupied\r\nseveral years, in the course of which he renounced\r\nhis professorship of theology at Bagdad and went\r\ninto devotional retirement at Jerusalem and\r\nDamascus, and also performed the pilgrimage to\r\nMecca.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eHe returned for a short time to Nishapur,\r\nthe birthplace of Omar Khayyām, his elder\r\ncontemporary, whom, as Professor Browne tells\r\nus in his \u003ccite\u003eHistory of Persian Literature\u003c/cite\u003e, he met and\r\ndisliked. He finally went back to Tus, his native\r\nplace, where he died, \u003cspan class=\"smcapuc\"\u003eA.D.\u003c/span\u003e 1111. Professor D. B.\r\nMacdonald, in an article on Ghazzali in the \u003ccite\u003eJournal\r\nof the American Oriental Society\u003c/cite\u003e, quotes the\r\nfollowing account of his death as related by his\r\nbrother Ahmad: “On Monday at dawn my\r\nbrother performed the ablution and prayed.\r\nThen he said, ‘Bring me my grave-clothes,’ and\r\nhe took them and kissed them, and laid them on\r\nhis eyes and said, ‘I hear and obey the command\r\nto go into the King.’ And he stretched out his\r\nfeet and went to meet Him and was taken to the\r\ngood-will of God Most High.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe great service which Al Ghazzali rendered\r\nto the Sufis was, as Mr. Whinfield has pointed out,\r\nin the preface to his translation of the Masnavi,\r\nto provide them with a metaphysical terminology\r\nwhich he had derived from the writings of Plotinus\r\nthe Neo-Platonist. He also gave them a secure\r\nposition in the Church of Islam.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_10\"\u003e[10]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn his \u003ccite\u003eDevelopment of Muslim Theology\u003c/cite\u003e Professor\r\nMacdonald calls Ghazzali “the greatest,\r\ncertainly the most sympathetic figure in the\r\nhistory of Islam, and the only teacher of the after\r\ngenerations ever put by a Muslim on a level with\r\nthe four great Imāms.” He further says of him:\r\n“Islam has never outgrown him, has never fully\r\nunderstood him. In the renaissance of Islam\r\nwhich is now rising to view, his time will come,\r\nand the new life will proceed from a renewed\r\nstudy of his works.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"right\"\u003eC. F.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_11\"\u003e[11]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003ch1\u003eTHE CONFESSIONS OF AL GHAZZALI\u003c/h1\u003e\r\n\u003ch2 id=\"Ghazzalis_Search_for_Truth\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eGhazzali’s Search for Truth\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003e“\u003ci\u003eIn the name of the most merciful God.\u003c/i\u003e”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eQuoth the Imām Ghazzali:\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eGlory be to God, Whose praise should precede\r\nevery writing and every speech! May the\r\nblessings of God rest on Muhammed His Prophet\r\nand His Apostle, on his family and companions,\r\nby whose guidance error is escaped!\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eYou have asked me, O brother in the faith, to\r\nexpound the aim and the mysteries of religious\r\nsciences, the boundaries and depths of theological\r\ndoctrines. You wish to know my experiences\r\nwhile disentangling truth lost in the medley of\r\nsects and divergencies of thought, and how I\r\nhave dared to climb from the low levels of traditional\r\nbelief to the topmost summit of assurance.\r\nYou desire to learn what I have borrowed, first of\r\nall from scholastic theology; and secondly from\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_12\"\u003e[12]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nthe method of the Ta’limites, who, in seeking truth,\r\nrest upon the authority of a leader; and why,\r\nthirdly, I have been led to reject philosophic\r\nsystems; and finally, what I have accepted of the\r\ndoctrine of the Sufis, and the sum total of truth\r\nwhich I have gathered in studying every variety\r\nof opinion. You ask me why, after resigning at\r\nBagdad a teaching post which attracted a number\r\nof hearers, I have, long afterwards, accepted a\r\nsimilar one at Nishapur. Convinced as I am\r\nof the sincerity which prompts your inquiries, I\r\nproceed to answer them, invoking the help and\r\nprotection of God.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eKnow then, my brothers (may God direct you\r\nin the right way), that the diversity in beliefs\r\nand religions, and the variety of doctrines and\r\nsects which divide men, are like a deep ocean\r\nstrewn with shipwrecks, from which very few\r\nescape safe and sound. Each sect, it is true,\r\nbelieves itself in possession of the truth and of\r\nsalvation, “each party,” as the Koran saith,\r\n“rejoices in its own creed”; but as the chief of the\r\napostles, whose word is always truthful, has told\r\nus, “My people will be divided into more than\r\nseventy sects, of whom only one will be saved.”\r\nThis prediction, like all others of the Prophet,\r\nmust be fulfilled.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eFrom the period of adolescence, that is to say,\r\nprevious to reaching my twentieth year to the\r\npresent time when I have passed my fiftieth, I\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_13\"\u003e[13]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nhave ventured into this vast ocean; I have\r\nfearlessly sounded its depths, and, like a resolute\r\ndiver, I have penetrated its darkness and dared\r\nits dangers and abysses. I have interrogated\r\nthe beliefs of each sect and scrutinised the\r\nmysteries of each doctrine, in order to disentangle\r\ntruth from error and orthodoxy from heresy. I\r\nhave never met one who maintained the hidden\r\nmeaning of the Koran without investigating the\r\nnature of his belief, nor a partisan of its exterior\r\nsense without inquiring into the results of his\r\ndoctrine. There is no philosopher whose system\r\nI have not fathomed, nor theologian the intricacies\r\nof whose doctrine I have not followed out.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSufism has no secrets into which I have not\r\npenetrated; the devout adorer of Deity has revealed\r\nto me the aim of his austerities; the\r\natheist has not been able to conceal from me the\r\nreal reason of his unbelief. The thirst for knowledge\r\nwas innate in me from an early age; it was\r\nlike a second nature implanted by God, without\r\nany will on my part. No sooner had I emerged\r\nfrom boyhood than I had already broken the\r\nfetters of tradition and freed myself from hereditary\r\nbeliefs.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eHaving noticed how easily the children of\r\nChristians become Christians, and the children\r\nof Moslems embrace Islam, and remembering also\r\nthe traditional saying ascribed to the Prophet,\r\n“Every child has in him the germ of Islam, then\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_14\"\u003e[14]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nhis parents make him Jew, Christian, or Zoroastrian,”\r\nI was moved by a keen desire to learn\r\nwhat was this innate disposition in the child,\r\nthe nature of the accidental beliefs imposed on\r\nhim by the authority of his parents and his masters,\r\nand finally the unreasoned convictions which he\r\nderives from their instructions.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eStruck with the contradictions which I encountered\r\nin endeavouring to disentangle the\r\ntruth and falsehood of these opinions, I was led\r\nto make the following reflection: “The search\r\nafter truth being the aim which I propose to\r\nmyself, I ought in the first place to ascertain\r\nwhat are the bases of certitude.” In the next\r\nplace I recognised that certitude is the clear and\r\ncomplete knowledge of things, such knowledge as\r\nleaves no room for doubt nor possibility of error\r\nand conjecture, so that there remains no room\r\nin the mind for error to find an entrance. In such\r\na case it is necessary that the mind, fortified\r\nagainst all possibility of going astray, should\r\nembrace such a strong conviction that, if, for\r\nexample, any one possessing the power of changing\r\na stone into gold, or a stick into a serpent, should\r\nseek to shake the bases of this certitude, it would\r\nremain firm and immovable. Suppose, for instance,\r\na man should come and say to me, who\r\nam firmly convinced that ten is more than three,\r\n“No; on the contrary, three is more than ten, and,\r\nto prove it, I change this rod into a serpent,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_15\"\u003e[15]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e”\r\nand supposing that he actually did so, I should\r\nremain none the less convinced of the falsity of\r\nhis assertion, and although his miracle might\r\narouse my astonishment, it would not instil any\r\ndoubt into my belief.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eI then understood that all forms of knowledge\r\nwhich do not unite these conditions (imperviousness\r\nto doubt, etc.) do not deserve any confidence,\r\nbecause they are not beyond the reach of doubt,\r\nand what is not impregnable to doubt cannot\r\nconstitute certitude.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003ch2 id=\"The_Subterfuges_of_the_Sophists\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eThe Subterfuges of the Sophists\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eI then examined what knowledge I possessed,\r\nand discovered that in none of it, with the\r\nexception of sense-perceptions and necessary\r\nprinciples, did I enjoy that degree of certitude\r\nwhich I have just described. I then sadly reflected\r\nas follows: “We cannot hope to find truth\r\nexcept in matters which carry their evidence in\r\nthemselves—that is to say, in sense-perceptions\r\nand necessary principles; we must therefore\r\nestablish these on a firm basis. Is my absolute\r\nconfidence in sense-perceptions and on the infallibility\r\nof necessary principles analogous to the\r\nconfidence which I formerly possessed in matters\r\nbelieved on the authority of others? Is it only\r\nanalogous to the reliance most people place on\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_16\"\u003e[16]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\ntheir organs of vision, or is it rigorously true\r\nwithout admixture of illusion or doubt?”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eI then set myself earnestly to examine the\r\nnotions we derive from the evidence of the senses\r\nand from sight in order to see if they could be\r\ncalled in question. The result of a careful examination\r\nwas that my confidence in them was\r\nshaken. Our sight for instance, perhaps the best\r\npractised of all our senses, observes a shadow, and\r\nfinding it apparently stationary pronounces it\r\ndevoid of movement. Observation and experience,\r\nhowever, show subsequently that a\r\nshadow moves not suddenly, it is true, but gradually\r\nand imperceptibly, so that it is never really\r\nmotionless.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAgain, the eye sees a star and believes it as\r\nlarge as a piece of gold, but mathematical calculations\r\nprove, on the contrary, that it is larger than\r\nthe earth. These notions, and all others which\r\nthe senses declare true, are subsequently contradicted\r\nand convicted of falsity in an irrefragable\r\nmanner by the verdict of reason.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThen I reflected in myself: “Since I cannot trust\r\nto the evidence of my senses, I must rely only\r\non intellectual notions based on fundamental\r\nprinciples, such as the following axioms: ‘Ten is\r\nmore than three. Affirmation and negation cannot\r\ncoexist together. A thing cannot both be\r\ncreated and also existent from eternity, living\r\nand annihilated simultaneously, at once necessary\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_17\"\u003e[17]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nand impossible.’” To this the notions I derived\r\nfrom my senses made the following objections:\r\n“Who can guarantee you that you can trust to\r\nthe evidence of reason more than to that of the\r\nsenses? You believed in our testimony till it\r\nwas contradicted by the verdict of reason, otherwise\r\nyou would have continued to believe it to\r\nthis day. Well, perhaps, there is above reason\r\nanother judge who, if he appeared, would convict\r\nreason of falsehood, just as reason has confuted\r\nus. And if such a third arbiter is not yet\r\napparent, it does not follow that he does not\r\nexist.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eTo this argument I remained some time without\r\nreply; a reflection drawn from the phenomena\r\nof sleep deepened my doubt. “Do you not see,”\r\nI reflected, “that while asleep you assume your\r\ndreams to be indisputably real? Once awake,\r\nyou recognise them for what they are—baseless\r\nchimeras. Who can assure you, then, of the\r\nreliability of notions which, when awake, you\r\nderive from the senses and from reason? In\r\nrelation to your present state they may be real;\r\nbut it is possible also that you may enter upon\r\nanother state of being which will bear the same\r\nrelation to your present state as this does to\r\nyour condition when asleep. In that new sphere\r\nyou will recognise that the conclusions of reason\r\nare only chimeras.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis possible condition is, perhaps, that which\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_18\"\u003e[18]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nthe Sufis call “ecstasy” (“hāl”), that is to say,\r\naccording to them, a state in which, absorbed in\r\nthemselves and in the suspension of sense-perceptions,\r\nthey have visions beyond the reach of\r\nintellect. Perhaps also Death is that state,\r\naccording to that saying of the Prince of prophets:\r\n“Men are asleep; when they die, they\r\nwake.” Our present life in relation to the future\r\nis perhaps only a dream, and man, once dead, will\r\nsee things in direct opposition to those now\r\nbefore his eyes; he will then understand that\r\nword of the Koran, “To-day we have removed\r\nthe veil from thine eyes and thy sight is keen.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSuch thoughts as these threatened to shake\r\nmy reason, and I sought to find an escape from\r\nthem. But how? In order to disentangle the\r\nknot of this difficulty, a proof was necessary. Now\r\na proof must be based on primary assumptions,\r\nand it was precisely these of which I was in doubt.\r\nThis unhappy state lasted about two months,\r\nduring which I was, not, it is true, explicitly or by\r\nprofession, but morally and essentially a thoroughgoing\r\nsceptic.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eGod at last deigned to heal me of this mental\r\nmalady; my mind recovered sanity and equilibrium,\r\nthe primary assumptions of reason recovered\r\nwith me all their stringency and force.\r\nI owed my deliverance, not to a concatenation of\r\nproofs and arguments, but to the light which God\r\ncaused to penetrate into my heart—the light which\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_19\"\u003e[19]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nilluminates the threshold of all knowledge. To\r\nsuppose that certitude can be only based upon\r\nformal arguments is to limit the boundless mercy\r\nof God. Some one asked the Prophet the explanation\r\nof this passage in the Divine Book:\r\n“God opens to Islam the heart of him whom He\r\nchooses to direct.” “That is spoken,” replied\r\nthe Prophet, “of the light which God sheds in the\r\nheart.” “And how can man recognise that\r\nlight?” he was asked. “By his detachment\r\nfrom this world of illusion and by a secret drawing\r\ntowards the eternal world,” the Prophet\r\nreplied.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eOn another occasion he said: “God has created\r\nHis creatures in darkness, and then has shed upon\r\nthem His light.” It is by the help of this light\r\nthat the search for truth must be carried on. As\r\nby His mercy this light descends from time to\r\ntime among men, we must ceaselessly be on the\r\nwatch for it. This is also corroborated by another\r\nsaying of the Apostle: “God sends upon you,\r\nat certain times, breathings of His grace; be\r\nprepared for them.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eMy object in this account is to make others\r\nunderstand with what earnestness we should\r\nsearch for truth, since it leads to results we never\r\ndreamt of. Primary assumptions have not got\r\nto be sought for, since they are always present\r\nto our minds; if we engage in such a search, we\r\nonly find them persistently elude our grasp.\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_20\"\u003e[20]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nBut those who push their investigation beyond\r\nordinary limits are safe from the suspicion of\r\nnegligence in pursuing what is within their\r\nreach.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003ch2 id=\"The_Different_Kinds_of_Seekers\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eThe Different Kinds of Seekers after Truth\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eWhen God in the abundance of His mercy had\r\nhealed me of this malady, I ascertained that those\r\nwho are engaged in the search for truth may be\r\ndivided into three groups.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eI. Scholastic theologians, who profess to follow\r\ntheory and speculation.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eII. The Philosophers, who profess to rely upon\r\nformal logic.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eIII. The Sufis, who call themselves the elect of\r\nGod and possessors of intuition and knowledge\r\nof the truth by means of ecstasy.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e“The truth,” I said to myself, “must be found\r\namong these three classes of men who devote\r\nthemselves to the search for it. If it escapes\r\nthem, one must give up all hope of attaining it.\r\nHaving once surrendered blind belief, it is impossible\r\nto return to it, for the essence of such\r\nbelief is to be unconscious of itself. As soon as\r\nthis unconsciousness ceases it is shattered like a\r\nglass whose fragments cannot be again reunited\r\nexcept by being cast again into the furnace and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_21\"\u003e[21]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nrefashioned.” Determined to follow these paths\r\nand to search out these systems to the bottom, I\r\nproceeded with my investigations in the following\r\norder: Scholastic theology; philosophical systems;\r\nand, finally Sufism.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003ch2 id=\"The_Aim_of_Scholastic_Theology\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eThe Aim of Scholastic Theology and its Results\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eCommencing with theological science, I carefully\r\nstudied and meditated upon it. I read the\r\nwritings of the authorities in this department and\r\nmyself composed several treatises. I recognised\r\nthat this science, while sufficing its own requirements,\r\ncould not assist me in arriving at the desired\r\ngoal. In short, its object is to preserve the purity\r\nof orthodox beliefs from all heretical innovation.\r\nGod, by means of His Apostle, has revealed to His\r\ncreatures a belief which is true as regards their\r\ntemporal and eternal interests; the chief articles\r\nof it are laid down in the Koran and in the traditions.\r\nSubsequently, Satan suggested to innovators\r\nprinciples contrary to those of orthodoxy;\r\nthey listened greedily to his suggestions, and the\r\npurity of the faith was menaced. God then\r\nraised up a school of theologians and inspired them\r\nwith the desire to defend orthodoxy by means of\r\na system of proofs adapted to unveil the devices\r\nof the heretics and to foil the attacks which they\r\nmade on the doctrines established by tradition.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_22\"\u003e[22]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSuch is the origin of scholastic theology. Many\r\nof its adepts, worthy of their high calling, valiantly\r\ndefended the orthodox faith by proving the\r\nreality of prophecy and the falsity of heretical\r\ninnovations. But, in order to do so, they had\r\nto rely upon a certain number of premises, which\r\nthey accepted in common with their adversaries,\r\nand which authority and universal consent\r\nor simply the Koran and the traditions obliged\r\nthem to accept. Their principal effort was to\r\nexpose the self-contradictions of their opponents\r\nand to confute them by means of the premises\r\nwhich they had professed to accept. Now a\r\nmethod of argumentation like this has little value\r\nfor one who only admits self-evident truths.\r\nScholastic theology could not consequently satisfy\r\nme nor heal the malady from which I suffered.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt is true that in its later development theology\r\nwas not content merely to defend dogma; it\r\nbetook itself to the study of first principles, of\r\nsubstances, accidents and the laws which govern\r\nthem; but through want of a thoroughly scientific\r\nbasis, it could not advance far in its researches,\r\nnor succeed in dispelling entirely the overhanging\r\nobscurity which springs from diversities of belief.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eI do not, however, deny that it has had a more\r\nsatisfactory result for others; on the contrary,\r\nI admit that it has; but it is by introducing the\r\nprinciple of authority in matters which are not\r\nself-evident. Moreover, my object is to explain\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_23\"\u003e[23]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nmy own mental attitude and not to dispute with\r\nthose who have found healing for themselves.\r\nRemedies vary according to the nature of the\r\ndisease; those which benefit some may injure\r\nothers.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"tb\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003ePhilosophy.\u003c/span\u003e—How far it is open to censure\r\nor not—On what points its adherents may be\r\nconsidered believers or unbelievers, orthodox or\r\nheretical—What they have borrowed from the\r\ntrue doctrine to render their chimerical theories\r\nacceptable—Why the minds of men swerve from\r\nthe truth—What criteria are available wherewith\r\nto separate the pure gold from the alloy in their\r\nsystems.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eI proceeded from the study of scholastic\r\ntheology to that of philosophy. It was plain to\r\nme that, in order to discover where the professors\r\nof any branch of knowledge have erred, one must\r\nmake a profound study of that science; must equal,\r\nnay surpass, those who know most of it, so as to\r\npenetrate into secrets of it unknown to them.\r\nOnly by this method can they be completely\r\nanswered, and of this method I can find no trace\r\nin the theologians of Islam. In theological\r\nwritings devoted to the refutation of philosophy\r\nI have only found a tangled mass of phrases full\r\nof contradictions and mistakes, and incapable of\r\ndeceiving, I will not say a critical mind, but even\r\nthe common crowd. Convinced that to dream\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_24\"\u003e[24]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nof refuting a doctrine before having thoroughly\r\ncomprehended it was like shooting at an object\r\nin the dark, I devoted myself zealously to the\r\nstudy of philosophy; but in books only and without\r\nthe aid of a teacher. I gave up to this work\r\nall the leisure remaining from teaching and from\r\ncomposing works on law. There were then\r\nattending my lectures three hundred of the\r\nstudents of Bagdad. With the help of God,\r\nthese studies, carried on in secret, so to speak,\r\nput me in a condition to thoroughly comprehend\r\nphilosophical systems within a space of two years.\r\nI then spent about a year in meditating on these\r\nsystems after having thoroughly understood them.\r\nI turned them over and over in my mind till they\r\nwere thoroughly clear of all obscurity. In this\r\nmanner I acquired a complete knowledge of all\r\ntheir subterfuges and subtleties, of what was\r\ntruth and what was illusion in them.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eI now proceed to give a resumé of these\r\ndoctrines. I ascertained that they were divided\r\ninto different varieties, and that their adherents\r\nmight be ranged under diverse heads. All, in\r\nspite of their diversity, are marked with the\r\nstamp of infidelity and irreligion, although there\r\nis a considerable difference between the ancient\r\nand modern, between the first and last of these\r\nphilosophers, according as they have missed or\r\napproximated to the truth in a greater or less\r\ndegree.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_25\"\u003e[25]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003ch2 id=\"Concerning_the_Philosophical_Sects\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eConcerning the Philosophical Sects and the\r\nStigma of Infidelity which attaches to them all\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe philosophical systems, in spite of their\r\nnumber and variety, may be reduced to three: (1)\r\nThe Materialists; (2) The Naturalists; (3) The\r\nTheists.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(1) \u003ci\u003eThe Materialists.\u003c/i\u003e They reject an intelligent\r\nand omnipotent Creator and Disposer of the\r\nUniverse. In their view the world exists from all\r\neternity and had no author. The animal comes\r\nfrom semen and semen from the animal; so it\r\nhas always been and will always be; those who\r\nmaintain this doctrine are atheists.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(2) \u003ci\u003eThe Naturalists.\u003c/i\u003e These devote themselves\r\nto the study of nature and of the marvellous\r\nphenomena of the animal and vegetable world.\r\nHaving carefully analysed animal organs with\r\nthe help of anatomy, struck with the wonders\r\nof God’s work and with the wisdom therein revealed,\r\nthey are forced to admit the existence of a\r\nwise Creator Who knows the end and purpose of\r\neverything. And certainly no one can study\r\nanatomy and the wonderful mechanism of living\r\nthings without being obliged to confess the profound\r\nwisdom of Him Who has framed the bodies\r\nof animals and especially of man. But carried\r\naway by their natural researches they believed\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_26\"\u003e[26]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nthat the existence of a being absolutely depended\r\nupon the proper equilibrium of its organism.\r\nAccording to them, as the latter perishes and is\r\ndestroyed, so is the thinking faculty which is\r\nbound up with it; and as they assert that the\r\nrestoration of a thing once destroyed to existence\r\nis unthinkable, they deny the immortality of the\r\nsoul. Consequently they deny heaven, hell, resurrection,\r\nand judgment. Acknowledging neither\r\na recompense for good deeds nor a punishment\r\nfor evil ones, they fling off all authority and\r\nplunge into sensual pleasures with the avidity of\r\nbrutes. These also ought to be called atheists,\r\nfor the true faith depends not only on the acknowledgment\r\nof God, but of His Apostle and of the\r\nDay of Judgment. And although they acknowledge\r\nGod and His attributes, they deny a judgment\r\nto come.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(3) Next come the \u003ci\u003eTheists\u003c/i\u003e. Among them should\r\nbe reckoned Socrates, who was the teacher of\r\nPlato as Plato was of Aristotle. This latter drew\r\nup for his disciples the rules of logic, organised\r\nthe sciences, elucidated what was formerly obscure,\r\nand expounded what had not been understood.\r\nThis school refuted the systems of the two others,\r\ni.e. the Materialists and Naturalists; but in exposing\r\ntheir mistaken and perverse beliefs, they\r\nmade use of arguments which they should not.\r\n“God suffices to protect the faithful in war”\r\n(\u003ccite\u003eKoran\u003c/cite\u003e, xxxiii. 25).\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_27\"\u003e[27]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAristotle also contended with success against\r\nthe theories of Plato, Socrates, and the theists who\r\nhad preceded him, and separated himself entirely\r\nfrom them; but he could not eliminate from his\r\ndoctrine the stains of infidelity and heresy which\r\ndisfigure the teaching of his predecessors. We\r\nshould therefore consider them all as unbelievers,\r\nas well as the so-called Mussulman philosophers,\r\nsuch as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Farabi, who have\r\nadopted their systems.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eLet us, however, acknowledge that among\r\nMussulman philosophers none have better interpreted\r\nthe doctrine of Aristotle than the latter.\r\nWhat others have handed down as his teaching is\r\nfull of error, confusion, and obscurity adapted to\r\ndisconcert the reader. The unintelligible can\r\nneither be accepted nor rejected. The philosophy\r\nof Aristotle, all serious knowledge of which we\r\nowe to the translation of these two learned men,\r\nmay be divided into three portions: the first\r\ncontains matter justly chargeable with impiety,\r\nthe second is tainted with heresy, and the third\r\nwe are obliged to reject absolutely. We proceed\r\nto details:\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003ch2 id=\"Divisions_of_the_Philosophic_Sciences\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eDivisions of the Philosophic Sciences\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThese sciences, in relation to the aim we have\r\nset before us, may be divided into six sections:\r\n(1) Mathematics; (2) Logic; (3) Physics; (4) Metaphysics;\r\n(5) Politics; (6) Moral Philosophy.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_28\"\u003e[28]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eMathematics comprises the knowledge of calculation,\r\ngeometry, and cosmography: it has no\r\nconnection with the religious sciences, and proves\r\nnothing for or against religion; it rests on a\r\nfoundation of proofs which, once known and\r\nunderstood, cannot be refuted. Mathematics\r\ntend, however, to produce two bad results.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe first is this: Whoever studies this science\r\nadmires the subtlety and clearness of its proofs.\r\nHis confidence in philosophy increases, and he\r\nthinks that all its departments are capable of the\r\nsame clearness and solidity of proof as mathematics.\r\nBut when he hears people speak of the\r\nunbelief and impiety of mathematicians, of their\r\nprofessed disregard for the Divine Law, which is\r\nnotorious, it is true that, out of regard for\r\nauthority, he echoes these accusations, but he says\r\nto himself at the same time that, if there was\r\ntruth in religion, it would not have escaped those\r\nwho have displayed so much keenness of intellect\r\nin the study of mathematics.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eNext, when he becomes aware of the unbelief\r\nand rejection of religion on the part of these\r\nlearned men, he concludes that to reject religion\r\nis reasonable. How many of such men gone\r\nastray I have met whose sole argument was that\r\njust mentioned. And supposing one puts to them\r\nthe following objection: “It does not follow\r\nthat a man who excels in one branch of knowledge\r\nexcels in all others, nor that he should be\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_29\"\u003e[29]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nequally versed in jurisprudence, theology, and\r\nmedicine. It is possible to be entirely ignorant\r\nof metaphysics, and yet to be an excellent grammarian.\r\nThere are past masters in every science\r\nwho are entirely ignorant of other branches of\r\nknowledge. The arguments of the ancient philosophers\r\nare rigidly demonstrative in mathematics\r\nand only conjectural in religious questions. In\r\norder to ascertain this one must proceed to a\r\nthorough examination of the matter.” Supposing,\r\nI say, one makes the above objection to\r\nthese “apes of unbelief,” they find it distasteful.\r\nFalling a prey to their passions, to a besotted\r\nvanity, and the wish to pass for learned men, they\r\npersist in maintaining the pre-eminence of mathematicians\r\nin all branches of knowledge. This is\r\na serious evil, and for this reason those who study\r\nmathematics should be checked from going too\r\nfar in their researches. For though far removed\r\nas it may be from the things of religion, this study,\r\nserving as it does as an introduction to the philosophic\r\nsystems, casts over religion its malign influence.\r\nIt is rarely that a man devotes himself\r\nto it without robbing himself of his faith and\r\ncasting off the restraints of religion.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe second evil comes from the sincere but\r\nignorant Mussulman who thinks the best way to\r\ndefend religion is by rejecting all the exact\r\nsciences. Accusing their professors of being\r\nastray, he rejects their theories of the eclipses of\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_30\"\u003e[30]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nthe sun and moon, and condemns them in the\r\nname of religion. These accusations are carried\r\nfar and wide, they reach the ears of the philosopher\r\nwho knows that these theories rest on infallible\r\nproofs; far from losing confidence in them, he\r\nbelieves, on the contrary, that Islam has ignorance\r\nand the denial of scientific proofs for its basis, and\r\nhis devotion to philosophy increases with his\r\nhatred to religion.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt is therefore a great injury to religion to suppose\r\nthat the defence of Islam involves the condemnation\r\nof the exact sciences. The religious\r\nlaw contains nothing which approves them or\r\ncondemns them, and in their turn they make no\r\nattack on religion. The words of the Prophet,\r\n“The sun and the moon are two signs of the\r\npower of God; they are not eclipsed for the birth\r\nor the death of any one; when you see these\r\nsigns take refuge in prayer and invoke the name\r\nof God”—these words, I say, do not in any way\r\ncondemn the astronomical calculations which\r\ndefine the orbits of these two bodies, their conjunction\r\nand opposition according to particular\r\nlaws. But as for the so-called tradition, “When\r\nGod reveals Himself in anything, He abases Himself\r\nthereto,” it is unauthentic, and not found in\r\nany trustworthy collection of the traditions.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSuch is the bearing and the possible danger of\r\nmathematics.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(2) \u003ci\u003eLogic.\u003c/i\u003e This science, in the same manner,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_31\"\u003e[31]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\ncontains nothing for or against religion. Its\r\nobject is the study of different kinds of proofs and\r\nsyllogisms, the conditions which should hold between\r\nthe premises of a proposition, the way to\r\ncombine them, the rules of a good definition, and\r\nthe art of formulating it. For knowledge consists\r\nof conceptions which spring from a definition or of\r\nconvictions which arise from proofs. There is\r\ntherefore nothing censurable in this science, and it\r\nis laid under contribution by theologians as well\r\nas by philosophers. The only difference is that\r\nthe latter use a particular set of technical formulæ\r\nand that they push their divisions and subdivisions\r\nfurther.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt may be asked, What, then, this has to do with\r\nthe grave questions of religion, and on what ground\r\nopposition should be offered to the methods of\r\nlogic? The objector, it will be said, can only inspire\r\nthe logician with an unfavourable opinion of\r\nthe intelligence and faith of his adversary, since\r\nthe latter’s faith seems to be based upon such\r\nobjections. But, it must be admitted, logic is\r\nliable to abuse. Logicians demand in reasoning\r\ncertain conditions which lead to absolute certainty,\r\nbut when they touch on religious questions, they\r\ncan no longer postulate these conditions, and\r\nought therefore to relax their habitual rigour. It\r\nhappens, accordingly, that a student who is enamoured\r\nof the evidential methods of logic, hearing\r\nhis teachers accused of irreligion, believes that\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_32\"\u003e[32]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nthis irreligion reposes on proofs as strong as those\r\nof logic, and immediately, without attempting the\r\nstudy of metaphysics, shares their mistake. This\r\nis a serious disadvantage arising from the study\r\nof logic.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(3) \u003ci\u003ePhysics.\u003c/i\u003e The object of this science is the\r\nstudy of the bodies which compose the universe:\r\nthe sky and the stars, and, here below, simple elements\r\nsuch as air, earth, water, fire, and compound\r\nbodies—animals, plants and minerals; the reasons\r\nof their changes, developments, and intermixture.\r\nBy the nature of its researches it is closely connected\r\nwith the study of medicine, the object of\r\nwhich is the human body, its principal and\r\nsecondary organs, and the law which governs their\r\nchanges. Religion having no fault to find with\r\nmedical science cannot justly do so with physical,\r\nexcept on some special matters which we have\r\nmentioned in the work entitled \u003ccite\u003eThe Destruction\r\nof the Philosophers\u003c/cite\u003e. Besides these primary questions,\r\nthere are some subordinate ones depending\r\non them, on which physical science is open to\r\nobjection. But all physical science rests, as we\r\nbelieve, on the following principle: Nature is\r\nentirely subject to God; incapable of acting by\r\nitself, it is an instrument in the hand of the\r\nCreator; sun, moon, stars, and elements are subject\r\nto God and can produce nothing of themselves.\r\nIn a word, nothing in nature can act spontaneously\r\nand apart from God.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_33\"\u003e[33]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(4) \u003ci\u003eMetaphysics.\u003c/i\u003e This is the fruitful breeding-ground\r\nof the errors of philosophers. Here they\r\ncan no longer satisfy the laws of rigorous argumentation\r\nsuch as logic demands, and this is what\r\nexplains the disputes which arise between them\r\nin the study of metaphysics. The system most\r\nclosely akin to the system of the Muhammedan\r\ndoctors is that of Aristotle as expounded to us\r\nby Farabi and Avicenna. The sum total of their\r\nerrors can be reduced to twenty propositions:\r\nthree of them are irreligious, and the other seventeen\r\nheretical. It was in order to combat their\r\nsystem that we wrote the work \u003ccite\u003eDestruction of\r\nthe Philosophers\u003c/cite\u003e. The three propositions in which\r\nthey are opposed to all the doctrines of Islam are\r\nthe following:\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(1) Bodies do not rise again; spirits alone will\r\nbe rewarded or punished; future punishments\r\nwill be therefore spiritual and not physical.\r\nThey are right in admitting spiritual punishments,\r\nfor there will be such; but they are wrong in rejecting\r\nphysical punishments, and contradicting\r\nin this manner the assertions of the Divine Law.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(2) “God takes cognisance of universals, not\r\nof specials.” This is manifestly irreligious. The\r\nKoran asserts truly, “Not an atom’s weight in\r\nheaven or earth can escape His knowledge”\r\n(x. 62).\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(3) They maintain that the universe exists\r\nfrom all eternity and will never end.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_34\"\u003e[34]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eNone of these propositions have ever been\r\nadmitted by Moslems.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBesides this, they deny that God has attributes,\r\nand maintain that He knows by His essence only\r\nand not by means of any attribute accessory to\r\nHis essence. In this point they approach the\r\ndoctrine of the Mutazilites, doctrines which we\r\nare not obliged to condemn as irreligious. On\r\nthe contrary, in our work entitled \u003ccite\u003eCriteria of the\r\ndifferences which divide Islam from Atheism\u003c/cite\u003e, we\r\nhave proved the wrongness of those who accuse\r\nof irreligion everything which is opposed to their\r\nway of looking at things.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(5) \u003ci\u003ePolitical Science.\u003c/i\u003e The professors of this\r\nconfine themselves to drawing up the rules which\r\nregulate temporal matters and the royal power.\r\nThey have borrowed their theories on this point\r\nfrom the books which God has revealed to His\r\nprophets and from the sentences of ancient sages,\r\ngathered by tradition.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(6) \u003ci\u003eMoral Philosophy.\u003c/i\u003e The professors of this\r\noccupy themselves with defining the attributes and\r\nqualities of the soul, grouping them according to\r\ngenus and species, and pointing out the way to\r\nmoderate and control them. They have borrowed\r\nthis system from the Sufis. These devout men,\r\nwho are always engaged in invoking the name of\r\nGod, in combating concupiscence and following\r\nthe way of God by renouncing the pleasures of\r\nthis world, have received, while in a state of\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_35\"\u003e[35]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\necstasy, revelations regarding the qualities of the\r\nsoul, its defects and its evil inclinations. These\r\nrevelations they have published, and the philosophers\r\nmaking use of them have introduced\r\nthem into their own systems in order to embellish\r\nand give currency to their falsehoods. In the\r\ntimes of the philosophers, as at every other period,\r\nthere existed some of these fervent mystics. God\r\ndoes not deprive this world of them, for they are\r\nits sustainers, and they draw down to it the\r\nblessings of heaven according to the tradition:\r\n“It is by them that you obtain rain, it is by them\r\nthat you receive your subsistence.” Such were\r\n“the Companions of the Cave,” who lived in\r\nancient times, as related by the Koran (xviii.).\r\nNow this mixture of moral and philosophic\r\ndoctrine with the words of the Prophet and\r\nthose of the Sufis gives rise to two dangers,\r\none for the upholder of those doctrines, the\r\nother for their opponent.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe danger for their opponent is serious. A\r\nnarrow-minded man, finding in their writings moral\r\nphilosophy mixed with unsupported theories,\r\nbelieves that he ought to entirely reject them and\r\nto condemn those who profess them. Having\r\nonly heard them from their mouth he does not\r\nhesitate in his ignorance to declare them false\r\nbecause those who teach them are in error. It is\r\nas if some one was to reject the profession of\r\nfaith made by Christians, “There is only one God\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_36\"\u003e[36]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nand Jesus is His prophet,” simply because it\r\nproceeds from Christians and without inquiring\r\nwhether it is the profession of this creed or the\r\ndenial of Muhammed’s prophetic mission which\r\nmakes Christians infidels. Now, if they are only\r\ninfidels because of their rejection of our prophet,\r\nwe are not entitled to reject those of their doctrines\r\nwhich do not wear the stamp of infidelity. In a\r\nword, truth does not cease to be true because it\r\nis found among them. Such, however, is the\r\ntendency of weak minds: they judge the truth\r\naccording to its professors instead of judging its\r\nprofessors by the standard of the truth. But a\r\nliberal spirit will take as its guide this maxim of\r\nthe Prince of believers, Ali the son of Abu Talib:\r\n“Do not seek for the truth by means of men;\r\nfind first the truth and then you will recognise\r\nthose who follow it.” This is the procedure followed\r\nby a wise man. Once in possession of the\r\ntruth he examines the basis of various doctrines\r\nwhich come before him, and when he has found\r\nthem true, he accepts them without troubling\r\nhimself whether the person who teaches them\r\nis sincere or a deceiver. Much rather, remembering\r\nhow gold is buried in the bowels of the earth,\r\nhe endeavours to disengage the truth from the\r\nmass of errors in which it is engulfed. The\r\nskilled coin-assayer plunges without hesitation\r\nhis hand into the purse of the coiner of false money,\r\nand, relying on experience, separates good coins\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_37\"\u003e[37]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nfrom bad. It is the ignorant rustic, and not the\r\nexperienced assayer, who will ask why we should\r\nhave anything to do with a false coiner. The unskilled\r\nswimmer must be kept away from the seashore,\r\nnot the expert in diving. The child, not\r\nthe charmer, must be forbidden to handle serpents.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs a matter of fact, men have such a good\r\nopinion of themselves, of their mental superiority\r\nand intellectual depth; they believe themselves\r\nso skilled in discerning the true from the false,\r\nthe path of safety from those of error, that they\r\nshould be forbidden as much as possible the\r\nperusal of philosophic writings, for though they\r\nsometimes escape the danger just pointed out,\r\nthey cannot avoid that which we are about to\r\nindicate.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSome of the maxims found in my works regarding\r\nthe mysteries of religion have met with\r\nobjectors of an inferior rank in science, whose\r\nintellectual penetration is insufficient to fathom\r\nsuch depths. They assert that these maxims are\r\nborrowed from the ancient philosophers, whereas\r\nthe truth is that they are the fruit of my own\r\nmeditations, but as the proverb says, “Sandal\r\nfollows the impress of sandal.”\u003ca id=\"FNanchor_1\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003ca class=\"fnanchor pginternal\" href=\"#Footnote_1\"\u003e[1]\u003c/a\u003e Some of them\r\nare found in our books of religious law, but the\r\ngreater part are derived from the writings of\r\nthe Sufis.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBut even if they were borrowed exclusively\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_38\"\u003e[38]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nfrom the doctrines of the philosophers, is it right\r\nto reject an opinion when it is reasonable in itself,\r\nsupported by solid proofs, and contradicting\r\nneither the Koran nor the traditions? If we\r\nadopt this method and reject every truth which\r\nhas chanced to have been proclaimed by an impostor,\r\nhow many truths we should have to\r\nreject! How many verses of the Koran and\r\ntraditions of the prophets and Sufi discourses and\r\nmaxims of sages we must close our ears to because\r\nthe author of the \u003ccite\u003eTreatise of the Brothers of Purity\u003c/cite\u003e\r\nhas inserted them in his writings in order to\r\nfurther his cause, and in order to lead minds\r\ngradually astray in the paths of error! The\r\nconsequence of this procedure would be that\r\nimpostors would snatch truths out of our hands\r\nin order to embellish their own works. The\r\nwise man, at least, should not make common cause\r\nwith the bigot blinded by ignorance.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eHoney does not become impure because it may\r\nhappen to have been placed in the glass which\r\nthe surgeon uses for cupping purposes. The\r\nimpurity of blood is due, not to its contact with\r\nthis glass, but to a peculiarity inherent in its own\r\nnature; this peculiarity, not existing in honey,\r\ncannot be communicated to it by its being placed\r\nin the cupping glass; it is therefore wrong to\r\nregard it as impure. Such is, however, the whimsical\r\nway of looking at things found in nearly\r\nall men. Every word proceeding from an authority\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_39\"\u003e[39]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nwhich they approve is accepted by them,\r\neven were it false; every word proceeding from\r\none whom they suspect is rejected, even were it\r\ntrue. In every case they judge of the truth according\r\nto its professors and not of men according\r\nto the truth which they profess, a \u003ci lang=\"la\"\u003ene plus ultra\u003c/i\u003e\r\nof error. Such is the peril in which philosophy\r\ninvolves its opponents.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe second danger threatens those who accept\r\nthe opinions of the philosophers. When, for\r\ninstance, we read the treatises of the “Brothers of\r\npurity” and other works of the same kind, we find\r\nin them sentences spoken by the Prophet and\r\nquotations from the Sufis. We approve these\r\nworks; we give them our confidence; and we\r\nfinish by accepting the errors which they contain,\r\nbecause of the good opinion of them with which\r\nthey have inspired us at the outset. Thus, by\r\ninsensible degrees, we are led astray. In view of\r\nthis danger the reading of philosophic writings\r\nso full of vain and delusive utopias should be forbidden,\r\njust as the slippery banks of a river are\r\nforbidden to one who knows not how to swim.\r\nThe perusal of these false teachings must be prevented\r\njust as one prevents children from touching\r\nserpents. A snake-charmer himself will\r\nabstain from touching snakes in the presence of\r\nhis young child, because he knows that the child,\r\nbelieving himself as clever as his father, will not\r\nfail to imitate him; and in order to lend more\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_40\"\u003e[40]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nweight to his prohibition the charmer will not\r\ntouch a serpent under the eyes of his son.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSuch should be the conduct of a learned man\r\nwho is also wise. But the snake-charmer, after\r\nhaving taken the serpent and separated the\r\nvenom from the antidote, having put the latter on\r\none side and destroyed the venom, ought not to\r\nwithhold the antidote from those who need it.\r\nIn the same way the skilled coin-assayer, after\r\nhaving put his hand in the bag of the false coiner,\r\ntaken out the good coins and thrown away the\r\nbad ones, ought not to refuse the good to those\r\nwho need and ask for it. Such should be the\r\nconduct of the learned man. If the patient feels\r\na certain dislike of the antidote because he knows\r\nthat it is taken from a snake whose body is the\r\nreceptacle of poison, he should be disabused of his\r\nfallacy. If a beggar hesitates to take a piece of\r\ngold which he knows comes from the purse of a\r\nfalse coiner, he should be told that his hesitation\r\nis a pure mistake which would deprive him of the\r\nadvantage which he seeks. It should be proved to\r\nhim that the contact of the good coins with the bad\r\ndoes not injure the former and does not improve the\r\nlatter. In the same way the contact of truth with\r\nfalsehood does not change truth into falsehood,\r\nany more than it changes falsehood into truth.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThus much, then, we have to say regarding the\r\ninconveniences and dangers which spring from\r\nthe study of philosophy.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_41\"\u003e[41]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003ch2 id=\"Sufism\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eSufism\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eWhen I had finished my examination of these\r\ndoctrines I applied myself to the study of Sufism.\r\nI saw that in order to understand it thoroughly\r\none must combine theory with practice. The\r\naim which the Sufis set before them is as follows:\r\nTo free the soul from the tyrannical yoke of the\r\npassions, to deliver it from its wrong inclinations\r\nand evil instincts, in order that in the purified\r\nheart there should only remain room for God and\r\nfor the invocation of His holy name.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs it was more easy to learn their doctrine than\r\nto practise it, I studied first of all those of their\r\nbooks which contain it: \u003ccite\u003eThe Nourishment of\r\nHearts\u003c/cite\u003e, by Abu Talib of Mecca, the works of\r\nHareth el Muhasibi, and the fragments which still\r\nremain of Junaid, Shibli, Abu Yezid Bustami and\r\nother leaders (whose souls may God sanctify). I\r\nacquired a thorough knowledge of their researches,\r\nand I learned all that was possible to learn of\r\ntheir methods by study and oral teaching. It\r\nbecame clear to me that the last stage could not\r\nbe reached by mere instruction, but only by transport,\r\necstasy, and the transformation of the moral\r\nbeing.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eTo define health and satiety, to penetrate their\r\ncauses and conditions, is quite another thing from\r\nbeing well and satisfied. To define drunkenness,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_42\"\u003e[42]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nto know that it is caused by vapours which rise\r\nfrom the stomach and cloud the seat of intelligence,\r\nis quite a different thing to being drunk. The\r\ndrunken man has no idea of the nature of drunkenness,\r\njust because he is drunk and not in a condition\r\nto understand anything, while the doctor,\r\nnot being under the influence of drunkenness,\r\nknows its character and laws. Or if the doctor\r\nfall ill, he has a theoretical knowledge of the health\r\nof which he is deprived.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn the same way there is a considerable difference\r\nbetween knowing renouncement, comprehending\r\nits conditions and causes, and practising\r\nrenouncement and detachment from the things\r\nof this world. I saw that Sufism consists in\r\nexperiences rather than in definitions, and that\r\nwhat I was lacking belonged to the domain, not\r\nof instruction, but of ecstasy and initiation.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe researches to which I had devoted myself,\r\nthe path which I had traversed in studying\r\nreligious and speculative branches of knowledge,\r\nhad given me a firm faith in three things—God,\r\nInspiration, and the Last Judgment. These three\r\nfundamental articles of belief were confirmed in\r\nme, not merely by definite arguments, but by a\r\nchain of causes, circumstances, and proofs which\r\nit is impossible to recount. I saw that one can\r\nonly hope for salvation by devotion and the\r\nconquest of one’s passions, a procedure which presupposes\r\nrenouncement and detachment from\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_43\"\u003e[43]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nthis world of falsehood in order to turn towards\r\neternity and meditation on God. Finally, I saw\r\nthat the only condition of success was to sacrifice\r\nhonours and riches and to sever the ties and\r\nattachments of worldly life.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eComing seriously to consider my state, I found\r\nmyself bound down on all sides by these trammels.\r\nExamining my actions, the most fair-seeming of\r\nwhich were my lecturing and professorial occupations,\r\nI found to my surprise that I was engrossed\r\nin several studies of little value, and profitless as\r\nregards my salvation. I probed the motives of\r\nmy teaching and found that, in place of being\r\nsincerely consecrated to God, it was only actuated\r\nby a vain desire of honour and reputation. I\r\nperceived that I was on the edge of an abyss, and\r\nthat without an immediate conversion I should\r\nbe doomed to eternal fire. In these reflections I\r\nspent a long time. Still a prey to uncertainty,\r\none day I decided to leave Bagdad and to give up\r\neverything; the next day I gave up my resolution.\r\nI advanced one step and immediately\r\nrelapsed. In the morning I was sincerely resolved\r\nonly to occupy myself with the future life;\r\nin the evening a crowd of carnal thoughts assailed\r\nand dispersed my resolutions. On the one side\r\nthe world kept me bound to my post in the chains\r\nof covetousness, on the other side the voice of\r\nreligion cried to me, “Up! Up! thy life is nearing\r\nits end, and thou hast a long journey to make.\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_44\"\u003e[44]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nAll thy pretended knowledge is nought but falsehood\r\nand fantasy. If thou dost not think now\r\nof thy salvation, when wilt thou think of it? If\r\nthou dost not break thy chains to-day, when wilt\r\nthou break them?” Then my resolve was\r\nstrengthened, I wished to give up all and flee; but\r\nthe Tempter, returning to the attack, said, “You\r\nare suffering from a transitory feeling; don’t\r\ngive way to it, for it will soon pass. If you obey\r\nit, if you give up this fine position, this honourable\r\npost exempt from trouble and rivalry, this seat\r\nof authority safe from attack, you will regret it\r\nlater on without being able to recover it.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThus I remained, torn asunder by the opposite\r\nforces of earthly passions and religious aspirations,\r\nfor about six months from the month Rajab of\r\nthe year \u003cspan class=\"smcapuc\"\u003eA.D.\u003c/span\u003e 1096. At the close of them my will\r\nyielded and I gave myself up to destiny. God\r\ncaused an impediment to chain my tongue and\r\nprevented me from lecturing. Vainly I desired,\r\nin the interest of my pupils, to go on with my\r\nteaching, but my mouth became dumb. The\r\nsilence to which I was condemned cast me into a\r\nviolent despair; my stomach became weak; I\r\nlost all appetite; I could neither swallow a\r\nmorsel of bread nor drink a drop of water.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe enfeeblement of my physical powers was\r\nsuch that the doctors, despairing of saving me,\r\nsaid, “The mischief is in the heart, and has\r\ncommunicated itself to the whole organism; there\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_45\"\u003e[45]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nis no hope unless the cause of his grievous\r\nsadness be arrested.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, conscious of my weakness and the\r\nprostration of my soul, I took refuge in God as a\r\nman at the end of himself and without resources.\r\n“He who hears the wretched when they cry”\r\n(\u003ccite\u003eKoran\u003c/cite\u003e, xxvii. 63) deigned to hear me; He made\r\neasy to me the sacrifice of honours, wealth, and\r\nfamily. I gave out publicly that I intended to\r\nmake the pilgrimage to Mecca, while I secretly\r\nresolved to go to Syria, not wishing that the\r\nCaliph (may God magnify him) or my friends\r\nshould know my intention of settling in that\r\ncountry. I made all kinds of clever excuses for\r\nleaving Bagdad with the fixed intention of not\r\nreturning thither. The Imāms of Irak criticised\r\nme with one accord. Not one of them could\r\nadmit that this sacrifice had a religious motive,\r\nbecause they considered my position as the highest\r\nattainable in the religious community. “Behold\r\nhow far their knowledge goes!” (\u003ccite\u003eKoran\u003c/cite\u003e, liii. 31).\r\nAll kinds of explanations of my conduct were\r\nforthcoming. Those who were outside the limits\r\nof Irak attributed it to the fear with which the\r\nGovernment inspired me. Those who were on\r\nthe spot and saw how the authorities wished to\r\ndetain me, their displeasure at my resolution and\r\nmy refusal of their request, said to themselves,\r\n“It is a calamity which one can only impute to a fate\r\nwhich has befallen the Faithful and Learning!”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_46\"\u003e[46]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAt last I left Bagdad, giving up all my fortune.\r\nOnly, as lands and property in Irak can afford an\r\nendowment for pious purposes, I obtained a legal\r\nauthorisation to preserve as much as was necessary\r\nfor my support and that of my children; for\r\nthere is surely nothing more lawful in the world\r\nthan that a learned man should provide sufficient\r\nto support his family. I then betook myself to\r\nSyria, where I remained for two years, which I\r\ndevoted to retirement, meditation, and devout\r\nexercises. I only thought of self-improvement\r\nand discipline and of purification of the heart by\r\nprayer in going through the forms of devotion\r\nwhich the Sufis had taught me. I used to live a\r\nsolitary life in the Mosque of Damascus, and was in\r\nthe habit of spending my days on the minaret\r\nafter closing the door behind me.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eFrom thence I proceeded to Jerusalem, and\r\nevery day secluded myself in the Sanctuary of\r\nthe Rock.\u003ca id=\"FNanchor_2\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003ca class=\"fnanchor pginternal\" href=\"#Footnote_2\"\u003e[2]\u003c/a\u003e After that I felt a desire to accomplish\r\nthe Pilgrimage, and to receive a full effusion\r\nof grace by visiting Mecca, Medina, and the Tomb\r\nof the Prophet. After visiting the shrine of the\r\nFriend of God (Abraham), I went to the Hedjāz.\r\nFinally, the longings of my heart and the prayers\r\nof my children brought me back to my country,\r\nalthough I was so firmly resolved at first never to\r\nrevisit it. At any rate I meant, if I did return, to\r\nlive there solitary and in religious meditation;\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_47\"\u003e[47]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nbut events, family cares, and vicissitudes of life\r\nchanged my resolutions and troubled my meditative\r\ncalm. However irregular the intervals which\r\nI could give to devotional ecstasy, my confidence\r\nin it did not diminish; and the more I was diverted\r\nby hindrances, the more steadfastly I returned\r\nto it.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eTen years passed in this manner. During my\r\nsuccessive periods of meditation there were revealed\r\nto me things impossible to recount. All\r\nthat I shall say for the edification of the reader is\r\nthis: I learnt from a sure source that the Sufis\r\nare the true pioneers on the path of God; that\r\nthere is nothing more beautiful than their life, nor\r\nmore praiseworthy than their rule of conduct, nor\r\npurer than their morality. The intelligence of\r\nthinkers, the wisdom of philosophers, the knowledge\r\nof the most learned doctors of the law would\r\nin vain combine their efforts in order to modify\r\nor improve their doctrine and morals; it would\r\nbe impossible. With the Sufis, repose and movement,\r\nexterior or interior, are illumined with the\r\nlight which proceeds from the Central Radiance\r\nof Inspiration. And what other light could shine\r\non the face of the earth? In a word, what can\r\none criticise in them? To purge the heart of all\r\nthat does not belong to God is the first step in\r\ntheir cathartic method. The drawing up of the\r\nheart by prayer is the keystone of it, as the cry\r\n“Allahu Akbar” (God is great) is the keystone\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_48\"\u003e[48]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nof prayer, and the last stage is the being lost in\r\nGod. I say the last stage, with reference to what\r\nmay be reached by an effort of will; but, to tell the\r\ntruth, it is only the first stage in the life of contemplation,\r\nthe vestibule by which the initiated enter.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eFrom the time that they set out on this path,\r\nrevelations commence for them. They come to\r\nsee in the waking state angels and souls of prophets;\r\nthey hear their voices and wise counsels.\r\nBy means of this contemplation of heavenly forms\r\nand images they rise by degrees to heights which\r\nhuman language cannot reach, which one cannot\r\neven indicate without falling into great and\r\ninevitable errors. The degree of proximity to\r\nDeity which they attain is regarded by some as\r\nintermixture of being (\u003ci\u003ehaloul\u003c/i\u003e), by others as\r\nidentification (\u003ci\u003eittihād\u003c/i\u003e), by others as intimate\r\nunion (\u003ci\u003ewasl\u003c/i\u003e). But all these expressions are wrong,\r\nas we have explained in our work entitled \u003ccite\u003eThe\r\nChief Aim\u003c/cite\u003e. Those who have reached that stage\r\nshould confine themselves to repeating the verse—\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"poetry-container\"\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"poetry\"\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"verse\"\u003eWhat I experience I shall not try to say;\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"verse\"\u003eCall me happy, but ask me no more.\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn short, he who does not arrive at the intuition\r\nof these truths by means of ecstasy,\r\nknows only the \u003cem\u003ename\u003c/em\u003e of inspiration. The miracles\r\nwrought by the saints are, in fact, merely the\r\nearliest forms of prophetic manifestation. Such\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_49\"\u003e[49]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nwas the state of the Apostle of God when, before\r\nreceiving his commission, he retired to Mount\r\nHira to give himself up to such intensity of\r\nprayer and meditation that the Arabs said: “Muhammed\r\nis become enamoured of God.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis state, then, can be revealed to the initiated\r\nin ecstasy, and to him who is incapable of ecstasy,\r\nby obedience and attention, on condition that he\r\nfrequents the society of Sufis till he arrives, so to\r\nspeak, at an imitative initiation. Such is the\r\nfaith which one can obtain by remaining among\r\nthem, and intercourse with them is never painful.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBut even when we are deprived of the advantage\r\nof their society, we can comprehend the\r\npossibility of this state (revelation by means of\r\necstasy) by a chain of manifest proofs. We have\r\nexplained this in the treatise entitled \u003ccite\u003eMarvels\r\nof the Heart\u003c/cite\u003e, which forms part of our work,\r\n\u003ccite\u003eThe Revival of the Religious Sciences\u003c/cite\u003e. The certitude\r\nderived from proofs is called “knowledge”;\r\npassing into the state we describe is called “transport”;\r\nbelieving the experience of others and\r\noral transmission is “faith.” Such are the three\r\ndegrees of knowledge, as it is written, “The Lord\r\nwill raise to different ranks those among you\r\nwho have believed and those who have received\r\nknowledge from Him” (\u003ccite\u003eKoran\u003c/cite\u003e, lviii. 12).\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBut behind those who believe comes a crowd of\r\nignorant people who deny the reality of Sufism,\r\nhear discourses on it with incredulous irony, and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_50\"\u003e[50]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\ntreat as charlatans those who profess it. To this\r\nignorant crowd the verse applies: “There are\r\nthose among them who come to listen to thee, and\r\nwhen they leave thee, ask of those who have\r\nreceived knowledge, ‘What has he just said?’\r\nThese are they whose hearts God has sealed up\r\nwith blindness and who only follow their passions.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAmong the number of convictions which I owe\r\nto the practice of the Sufi rule is the knowledge\r\nof the true nature of inspiration. This knowledge\r\nis of such great importance that I proceed\r\nto expound it in detail.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003ch2 id=\"The_Reality_of_Inspiration\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eThe Reality of Inspiration: its Importance for the Human Race\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe substance of man at the moment of its\r\ncreation is a simple monad, devoid of knowledge\r\nof the worlds subject to the Creator, worlds whose\r\ninfinite number is only known to Him, as the\r\nKoran says: “Only thy Lord knoweth the number\r\nof His armies.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eMan arrives at this knowledge by the aid of his\r\nperceptions; each of his senses is given him that\r\nhe may comprehend the world of created things,\r\nand by the term “world” we understand the\r\ndifferent species of creatures. The first sense\r\nrevealed to man is touch, by means of which he\r\nperceives a certain group of qualities—heat,\r\ncold, moist, dry. The sense of touch does not\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_51\"\u003e[51]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nperceive colours and forms, which are for it\r\nas though they did not exist. Next comes the\r\nsense of sight, which makes him acquainted\r\nwith colours and forms; that is to say, with that\r\nwhich occupies the highest rank in the world of\r\nsensation. The sense of hearing succeeds, and\r\nthen the senses of smell and taste.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eWhen the human being can elevate himself\r\nabove the world of sense, towards the age of\r\nseven, he receives the faculty of discrimination;\r\nhe enters then upon a new phase of existence and\r\ncan experience, thanks to this faculty, impressions,\r\nsuperior to those of the senses, which do not\r\noccur in the sphere of sensation.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eHe then passes to another phase and receives\r\nreason, by which he discerns things necessary,\r\npossible, and impossible; in a word, all the notions\r\nwhich he could not combine in the former stages\r\nof his existence. But beyond reason and at a\r\nhigher level a new faculty of vision is bestowed\r\nupon him, by which he perceives invisible things,\r\nthe secrets of the future and other concepts as\r\ninaccessible to reason as the concepts of reason\r\nare inaccessible to mere discrimination and what\r\nis perceived by discrimination to the senses.\r\nJust as the man possessed only of discrimination\r\nrejects and denies the notions acquired by reason,\r\nso do certain rationalists reject and deny the\r\nnotion of inspiration. It is a proof of their profound\r\nignorance; for, instead of argument, they\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_52\"\u003e[52]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nmerely deny inspiration as a sphere unknown and\r\npossessing no real existence. In the same way, a\r\nman blind from birth, who knows neither by\r\nexperience nor by information what colours and\r\nforms are, neither knows nor understands them\r\nwhen some one speaks of them to him for the\r\nfirst time.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eGod, wishing to render intelligible to men the\r\nidea of inspiration, has given them a kind of\r\nglimpse of it in sleep. In fact, man perceives\r\nwhile asleep the things of the invisible world\r\neither clearly manifest or under the veil of allegory\r\nto be subsequently lifted by divination. If,\r\nhowever, one was to say to a person who had\r\nnever himself experienced these dreams that, in a\r\nstate of lethargy resembling death and during\r\nthe complete suspension of sight, hearing, and all\r\nthe senses, a man can see the things of the invisible\r\nworld, this person would exclaim, and seek to\r\nprove the impossibility of these visions by some\r\nsuch argument as the following: “The sensitive\r\nfaculties are the causes of perception. Now, if\r\none can perceive certain things when one is in\r\nfull possession of these faculties, how much more\r\nis their perception impossible when these faculties\r\nare suspended.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe falsity of such an argument is shown by\r\nevidence and experience. For in the same way\r\nas reason constitutes a particular phase of existence\r\nin which intellectual concepts are perceived\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_53\"\u003e[53]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nwhich are hidden from the senses, similarly, inspiration\r\nis a special state in which the inner eye\r\ndiscovers, revealed by a celestial light, mysteries\r\nout of the reach of reason. The doubts which are\r\nraised regarding inspiration relate (1) to its\r\npossibility, (2) to its real and actual existence,\r\n(3) to its manifestation in this or that person.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eTo prove the possibility of inspiration is to prove\r\nthat it belongs to a category of branches of knowledge\r\nwhich cannot be attained by reason. It is\r\nthe same with medical science and astronomy.\r\nHe who studies them is obliged to recognise that\r\nthey are derived solely from the revelation and\r\nspecial grace of God. Some astronomical phenomena\r\nonly occur once in a thousand years; how\r\nthen can we know them by experience?\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eWe may say the same of inspiration, which is\r\none of the branches of intuitional knowledge.\r\nFurther, the perception of things which are beyond\r\nthe attainment of reason is only one of the\r\nfeatures peculiar to inspiration, which possesses a\r\ngreat number of others. The characteristic which\r\nwe have mentioned is only, as it were, a drop of\r\nwater in the ocean, and we have mentioned it\r\nbecause people experience what is analogous to it\r\nin dreams and in the sciences of medicine and\r\nastronomy. These branches of knowledge belong\r\nto the domain of prophetic miracles, and reason\r\ncannot attain to them.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs to the other characteristics of inspiration,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_54\"\u003e[54]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nthey are only revealed to adepts in Sufism and\r\nin a state of ecstatic transport. The little that we\r\nknow of the nature of inspiration we owe to the\r\nkind of likeness to it which we find in sleep;\r\nwithout that we should be incapable of comprehending\r\nit, and consequently of believing in it,\r\nfor conviction results from comprehension. The\r\nprocess of initiation into Sufism exhibits this\r\nlikeness to inspiration from the first. There is\r\nin it a kind of ecstasy proportioned to the condition\r\nof the person initiated, and a degree of\r\ncertitude and conviction which cannot be attained\r\nby reason. This single fact is sufficient to\r\nmake us believe in inspiration.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eWe now come to deal with doubts relative to\r\nthe inspiration of a particular prophet. We shall\r\nnot arrive at certitude on this point except\r\nby ascertaining, either by ocular evidence or by\r\nreliable tradition, the facts relating to that\r\nprophet. When we have ascertained the real\r\nnature of inspiration and proceed to the serious\r\nstudy of the Koran and the traditions, we shall\r\nthen know certainly that Muhammed is the\r\ngreatest of prophets. After that we should\r\nfortify our conviction by verifying the truth\r\nof his preaching and the salutary effect which\r\nit has upon the soul. We should verify in experience\r\nthe truth of sentences such as the\r\nfollowing: “He who makes his conduct accord\r\nwith his knowledge receives from God more\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_55\"\u003e[55]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nknowledge”; or this, “God delivers to the\r\noppressor him who favours injustice”; or again,\r\n“Whosoever when rising in the morning has\r\nonly one anxiety (to please God), God will\r\npreserve him from all anxiety in this world and\r\nthe next.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eWhen we have verified these sayings in experience\r\nthousands of times, we shall be in possession\r\nof a certitude on which doubt can obtain\r\nno hold. Such is the path we must traverse in\r\norder to realise the truth of inspiration. It is not\r\na question of finding out whether a rod has been\r\nchanged into a serpent, or whether the moon has\r\nbeen split in two.\u003ca id=\"FNanchor_3\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003ca class=\"fnanchor pginternal\" href=\"#Footnote_3\"\u003e[3]\u003c/a\u003e If we regard miracles in\r\nisolation, without their countless attendant circumstances,\r\nwe shall be liable to confound them\r\nwith magic and falsehood, or to regard them as a\r\nmeans of leading men astray, as it is written,\r\n“God misleads and directs as He chooses” (\u003ccite\u003eKoran\u003c/cite\u003e,\r\nxxxv. 9); we shall find ourselves involved in all\r\nthe difficulties which the question of miracles\r\nraises. If, for instance, we believe that eloquence\r\nof style is a proof of inspiration, it is possible that\r\nan eloquent style composed with this object may\r\ninspire us with a false belief in the inspiration of\r\nhim who wields it. The supernatural should be\r\nonly one of the constituents which go to form our\r\nbelief, without our placing too much reliance on\r\nthis or that detail. We should rather resemble\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_56\"\u003e[56]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\na person who, learning a fact from a group of\r\npeople, cannot point to this or that particular\r\nman as his informant, and who, not distinguishing\r\nbetween them, cannot explain precisely how his\r\nconviction regarding the fact has been formed.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSuch are the characteristics of scientific certitude.\r\nAs to the transport which permits men to\r\nsee the truth and, so to speak, to handle it, it is\r\nonly known to the Sufis. What I have just said\r\nregarding the true nature of inspiration is sufficient\r\nfor the aim which I have proposed to myself. I\r\nmay return to the subject later, if necessary.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eI pass now to the causes of the decay of faith\r\nand show the means of bringing back those who\r\nhave erred and of preserving them from the\r\ndangers which threaten them. To those who\r\ndoubt because they are tinctured with the doctrine\r\nof the Ta’limites, my treatise entitled \u003ccite\u003eThe Just\r\nBalance\u003c/cite\u003e affords a sufficient guide; therefore\r\nit is unnecessary to return to the subject here.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs to the vain theories of the Ibahat, I have\r\ngrouped them in seven classes, and explained\r\nthem in the work entitled \u003ccite\u003eAlchemy of Happiness\u003c/cite\u003e.\r\nFor those whose faith has been undermined by\r\nphilosophy, so far that they deny the reality of inspiration,\r\nwe have proved the truth and necessity\r\nof it, seeking our proofs in the hidden properties\r\nof medicines and of the heavenly bodies. It is\r\nfor them that we have written this treatise,\r\nand the reason for our seeking for proofs\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_57\"\u003e[57]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nin the sciences of medicine and of astronomy is\r\nbecause these sciences belong to the domain of\r\nphilosophy. All those branches of knowledge\r\nwhich our opponents boast of—astronomy,\r\nmedicine, physics, and divination—provide us\r\nwith arguments in favour of the Prophet.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs to those who, professing a lip-faith in the\r\nProphet, adulterate religion with philosophy, they\r\nreally deny inspiration, since in their view the\r\nProphet is only a sage whom a superior destiny\r\nhas appointed as guide to men, and this view\r\nbelies the true nature of inspiration. To believe\r\nin the Prophet is to admit that there is above\r\nintelligence a sphere in which are revealed to the\r\ninner vision truths beyond the grasp of intelligence,\r\njust as things seen are not apprehended\r\nby the sense of hearing, nor things understood\r\nby that of touch. If our opponent denies the\r\nexistence of such a higher region, we can\r\nprove to him, not only its possibility, but its\r\nactuality. If, on the contrary, he admits its\r\nexistence, he recognises at the same time that there\r\nare in that sphere things which reason cannot\r\ngrasp; nay, which reason rejects as false and\r\nabsurd. Suppose, for instance, that the fact of\r\ndreams occurring in sleep were not so common and\r\nnotorious as it is, our wise men would not fail\r\nto repudiate the assertion that the secrets of the\r\ninvisible world can be revealed while the senses\r\nare, so to speak, suspended.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_58\"\u003e[58]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAgain, if it were to be said to one of them, “Is\r\nit possible that there is in the world a thing as\r\nsmall as a grain, which being carried into a city\r\ncan destroy it and afterwards destroy itself so\r\nthat nothing remains either of the city or of\r\nitself?” “Certainly,” he would exclaim, “it is\r\nimpossible and ridiculous.” Such, however, is the\r\neffect of fire, which would certainly be disputed\r\nby one who had not witnessed it with his own eyes.\r\nNow, the refusal to believe in the mysteries of the\r\nother life is of the same kind.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs to the fourth cause of the spread of unbelief—the\r\ndecay of faith owing to the bad example\r\nset by learned men—there are three ways of\r\nchecking it.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(1) One can answer thus: “The learned man\r\nwhom you accuse of disobeying the divine law\r\nknows that he disobeys, as you do when you drink\r\nwine or exact usury or allow yourself in evil-speaking,\r\nlying, and slander. You know your\r\nsin and yield to it, not through ignorance, but\r\nbecause you are mastered by concupiscence.\r\nThe same is the case with the learned man. How\r\nmany believe in doctors who do not abstain from\r\nfruit and cold water when strictly forbidden them\r\nby a doctor! That does not prove that those\r\nthings are not dangerous, or that their faith in\r\nthe doctor was not solidly established. Similar\r\nerrors on the part of learned men are to be imputed\r\nsolely to their weakness.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_59\"\u003e[59]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(2) Or again, one may say to a simple and\r\nignorant man: “The learned man reckons upon his\r\nknowledge as a viaticum for the next life. He\r\nbelieves that his knowledge will save him and\r\nplead in his favour, and that his intellectual\r\nsuperiority will entitle him to indulgence; lastly,\r\nthat if his knowledge increases his responsibility,\r\nit may also entitle him to a higher degree of consideration.\r\nAll that is possible; and even if the\r\nlearned man has neglected practice, he can at\r\nany rate produce proofs of his knowledge. But\r\nyou, poor, witless one, if, like him, you neglect\r\npractice, destitute as you are of knowledge, you\r\nwill perish without anything to plead in your\r\nfavour.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e(3) Or one may answer, and this reason is the\r\ntrue one: “The truly learned man only sins\r\nthrough carelessness, and does not remain in a\r\nstate of impenitence. For real knowledge shows\r\nsin to be a deadly poison, and the other world to\r\nbe superior to this. Convinced of this truth,\r\nman ought not to exchange the precious for the\r\nvile. But the knowledge of which we speak is\r\nnot derived from sources accessible to human\r\ndiligence, and that is why progress in mere worldly\r\nknowledge renders the sinner more hardened in\r\nhis revolt against God.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eTrue knowledge, on the contrary, inspires in\r\nhim who is initiate in it more fear and more\r\nreverence, and raises a barrier of defence between\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca id=\"Page_60\"\u003e[60]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nhim and sin. He may slip and stumble, it is true,\r\nas is inevitable with one encompassed by human\r\ninfirmity, but these slips and stumbles will not\r\nweaken his faith. The true Moslem succumbs\r\noccasionally to temptation, but he repents and\r\nwill not persevere obstinately in the path of error.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"tb\"\u003eI pray God the Omnipotent to place us in the\r\nranks of His chosen, among the number of those\r\nwhom He directs in the path of safety, in whom\r\nHe inspires fervour lest they forget Him; whom\r\nHe cleanses from all defilement, that nothing\r\nmay remain in them except Himself; yea, of\r\nthose whom He indwells completely, that they\r\nmay adore none beside Him.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"footnotes\"\u003e\r\n\u003ch2\u003eFOOTNOTES\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"footnote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca id=\"Footnote_1\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003ca href=\"#FNanchor_1\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"label\"\u003e[1]\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ci\u003eI.e.\u003c/i\u003e There is nothing new under the sun.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"footnote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca id=\"Footnote_2\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003ca href=\"#FNanchor_2\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"label\"\u003e[2]\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e In the Mosque of Omar.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"footnote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca id=\"Footnote_3\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003ca href=\"#FNanchor_3\" class=\"pginternal\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"label\"\u003e[3]\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e A miracle ascribed to Muhammed.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"titlepage\"\u003e\u003ci\u003ePrinted by Hazell, Watson \u0026amp; Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury.\u003c/i\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003chr\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center larger\"\u003eTHE ORIENT LIBRARY\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"figcenter\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\r\n\u003cimg alt=\"Drawing of the sun rising in the east\" height=\"100\" src=\"https://chrisdeasy.com/wp-content/uploads/gutenberg-deliverance-from-error-sun.jpg\" width=\"150\" id=\"img_images_sun.jpg_1\"\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003eTHE WISDOM OF THE EAST SERIES\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eEdited by L. CRANMER-BYNG and Dr. S. A. KAPADIA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eThe HON. ADVISORY COMMITTEE of the ORIENT LIBRARY\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\r\n\u003cspan class=\"smcapuc\"\u003e(WISDOM OF THE EAST SERIES)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003eLord REAY, G.C.S.I., \u003ci\u003ePresident\u003c/i\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003eSir ARTHUR WOLLASTON, K.C.I.E., \u003ci\u003eChairman\u003c/i\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003eL. CRANMER-BYNG and S. A. KAPADIA, \u003ci\u003eHon. Secs.\u003c/i\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"list-container\"\u003e\r\n\u003cul\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eT. W. Arnold\u003c/span\u003e (London University College).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eL. D. Barnett\u003c/span\u003e (London University College).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eMiss \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eG. Bell.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eSyed Hosain Bilgrami\u003c/span\u003e, C.S.I.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eJ. F. Blumhardt\u003c/span\u003e (Cambridge University).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eE. G. Browne\u003c/span\u003e (Cambridge University).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eL. Cranmer-Byng\u003c/span\u003e, Esq.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eDr. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eJ. Estlin Carpenter\u003c/span\u003e (Oxford University).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eA. G. Ellis\u003c/span\u003e, Esq.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eGregory Foster\u003c/span\u003e (Provost, London University College).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eDr. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eM. Gaster\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eH. A. Giles\u003c/span\u003e (Cambridge University).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eLionel Giles\u003c/span\u003e, Esq., M.A.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eIgnaz Goldziher\u003c/span\u003e (Budapest University).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eDr. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eG. A. Grierson\u003c/span\u003e, C.I.E.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eSir \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eHenry Howorth\u003c/span\u003e, K.C.I.E.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eDr. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eS. A. Kapadia\u003c/span\u003e (London University College).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eSir \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eAlfred Lyall\u003c/span\u003e, G.C.I.E.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eSir \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eCharles Lyall\u003c/span\u003e, K.C.S.I.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eD. S. Margoliouth\u003c/span\u003e (Oxford University).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eMrs. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eD. S. Margoliouth\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eA. A. Macdonell\u003c/span\u003e (Oxford University).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eTheodor Morison\u003c/span\u003e, Esq., M.A.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eJ. Morris\u003c/span\u003e, Esq. (Japan).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eA. H. Hallam Murray\u003c/span\u003e, Esq.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eReginald A. Nicholson\u003c/span\u003e (Cambridge University).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eRapson\u003c/span\u003e (Cambridge University).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eMiss \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eRidding\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eSyed Ameer Ali\u003c/span\u003e, C.I.E.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eF. W. Thomas\u003c/span\u003e, Esq., M.A.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eProf. \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eAnton Tien\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003cli\u003eDon \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eM. de Wickremasinghe\u003c/span\u003e (Oxford University).\u003c/li\u003e\r\n\u003c/ul\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"titlepage larger\"\u003eWISDOM OF THE EAST SERIES\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Diwan of Abu’l-Ala\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBy HENRY BAERLEIN. 1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBrahma-Knowledge: An Outline of the\r\nPhilosophy of the Vedānta\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs set forth by the Upanishads and by Śankara. By L. D.\r\nBARNETT, M.A., \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eLitt.D.\u003c/span\u003e, Professor of Sanskrit at University\r\nCollege, London. 2/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Conduct of Life; or, The Universal\r\nOrder of Confucius\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eA Translation of one of the four Confucian Books, hitherto known\r\nas the Doctrine of the Mean. By KU HUNG MING, M.A.\r\n(Edin.). 1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Teachings of Zoroaster and the Philosophy\r\nof the Parsi Religion\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eTranslated with Introduction by Dr. S. A. KAPADIA, Lecturer,\r\nUniversity College, London. 2/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Persian Mystics\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eI. Jalálu’d-dín Rúmí\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBy F. HADLAND DAVIS. 2/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eII. Jámí.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBy F. HADLAND DAVIS. 2/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Way of the Buddha\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSelections from the Buddhist texts, together with the original Pali,\r\nwith Introduction by HERBERT BAYNES, M.R.A.S. 2/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Sayings of Confucius\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eA new Translation of the greater part of the Confucian Analects,\r\nwith Introduction and Notes by LIONEL GILES, M.A. (Oxon.),\r\nAssistant in the Department of Oriental Books and Manuscripts of\r\nthe British Museum. 2/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eMusings of a Chinese Mystic\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSelections from the Philosophy of Chuang Tzŭ. With Introduction\r\nby LIONEL GILES, M.A. (Oxon.), Assistant at the British\r\nMuseum. 2/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Awakening of the Soul\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eFrom the Arabic of IBN TUFAIL. Translated with Introduction\r\nby \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003ePaul Brönnle\u003c/span\u003e, Ph.D. 1/6 net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Religion of the Koran\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eWith Introduction by \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eSir\u003c/span\u003e ARTHUR N. WOLLASTON, K.C.I.E.\r\n1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Wisdom of Israel: Being Extracts from\r\nthe Babylonian Talmud and Midrash Rabboth\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eTranslated from the Aramaic with an Introduction by EDWIN\r\nCOLLINS. 1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSadi’s Scroll of Wisdom\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBy SHAIKH SA’DI. With Introduction by \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eSir\u003c/span\u003e ARTHUR N.\r\nWOLLASTON, K.C.I.E. 1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Instruction of Ptah-Hotep and the\r\nInstruction of Ke’gemni\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Oldest Books in the World. Translated from the Egyptian\r\nwith Introduction and Appendix by BATTISCOMBE G. GUNN.\r\n1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Rose Garden of Sa’di\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSelected and Rendered from the Persian with Introduction by\r\nL. CRANMER-BYNG. 1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Classics of Confucius\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eI. The Book of History (Shu-King)\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBy W. GORN OLD. 1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eII. The Book of Odes (Shi-King)\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBy L. CRANMER-BYNG. 1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Sayings of Lao Tzŭ\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eFrom the Chinese. Translated with Introduction by LIONEL\r\nGILES, of the British Museum. 1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eWomen and Wisdom of Japan\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eWith Introduction by S. TAKAISHI. 1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eArabian Wisdom\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eSelections and Translations from the Arabic by JOHN WORTABET,\r\nM.D. 1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe Duties of the Heart\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eBy \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eRabbi\u003c/span\u003e BACHYE. Translated from the Hebrew with Introduction\r\nby \u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eEdwin Collins\u003c/span\u003e, Hollier Hebrew Scholar, U.C.L.\r\n1/- net.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003e\u003ci\u003eAll literary communications to be addressed to the Editors of\u003c/i\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003eTHE ORIENT LIBRARY, c/o DR. S. A. KAPADIA, ORIENTAL\r\nSECRETARY, NORTHBROOK SOCIETY, 185 PICCADILLY,\r\nLONDON, W.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"tb\"\u003eThe object of the Editors of this Series is a very definite one.\r\nThey desire above all things that, in their humble way, these\r\nbooks shall be the ambassadors of good-will and understanding\r\nbetween East and West, the old world of Thought and the new of\r\nAction. In this endeavour, and in their own sphere, they are but\r\nfollowers of the highest example in the land. They are confident\r\nthat a deeper knowledge of the great ideals and lofty philosophy of\r\nOriental thought may help to a revival of that true spirit of Charity\r\nwhich neither despises nor fears the nations of another creed and\r\ncolour. Finally, in thanking press and public for the very cordial\r\nreception given to the “Wisdom of the East” Series, they wish to\r\nstate that no pains have been spared to secure the best specialists\r\nfor the treatment of the various subjects at hand.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"titlepage larger\"\u003eSOME OPINIONS OF THE PRESS\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"blockquote smaller\"\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe Athenæum.\u003c/b\u003e—“We wish that there were more of them; they are\r\ndreamy, lifelike, and fascinating.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePall Mall Gazette.\u003c/b\u003e—“No translation of this important work has been made\r\nsince the beginning of the eighteenth century.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eManchester Courier.\u003c/b\u003e—“Worthy of close study by all who would penetrate\r\nto the depth of Eastern thought and feeling.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLiterary Guide.\u003c/b\u003e—“We wish success to this little series of books.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOutlook.\u003c/b\u003e—“This Series is published to help in the process of renewing the\r\nspiritual and moral life of the West.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe Scotsman.\u003c/b\u003e—“This Series should not fail to please readers of the more\r\nstudious sort.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSouthport Guardian.\u003c/b\u003e—“This Series will find considerable favour with all\r\nStudents of Eastern Literature and Eastern Philosophy.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBristol Mercury.\u003c/b\u003e—“We commend these little books to all who imagine\r\nthat there is no knowledge worth having outside Europe and America.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGlasgow Herald.\u003c/b\u003e—“This new Series has a definite and lofty aim, and is\r\ndeserving of support. The books are small, cheap, and well adapted for the\r\npocket. Every page is regularly refreshing and stimulating.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eField.\u003c/b\u003e—“Such books are valuable aids to the understanding of a far-off age\r\nand people, and have a great interest for the student of literature.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIrish Times.\u003c/b\u003e—“The volumes are charming in form, low in price, and\r\nexcellent in matter.”\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003cp class=\"center\"\u003eLONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003cpre\u003e\u003c/pre\u003e\r\n\u003c/article\u003e"}],"SectionSequence":["Back Link","Work Title","Deck","Author","Period","Era","Composition","Region","Terra Avita","Terra Avita Region","Modern Country","Original Title","Language","Primary Discipline","Secondary Discipline","Tradition","Full Versions","Core Thesis","Classification","Arguments","Influence","Significance","Full Text"],"Counts":{"ContextCards":3,"GeoCards":4,"DisciplineCards":2,"Links":11,"Sections":23,"Styles":3,"Scripts":1}}