IEP context row for utilitarianism and Mill's ethical theory.

IEP context for Adam Smith.

IEP reference for Adorno, Frankfurt School critical theory, domination, aesthetics, and negative dialectics.

IEP context for Advaita Vedanta.

IEP context for Advaita Vedānta reception of Upanishadic self-knowledge and nonduality themes.

IEP search surface for African philosophy.

IEP context for African Sage Philosophy.

Context row for African philosophy context; not a dedicated Appiah profile.

IEP entry by Gail M. Presbey on African Sage Philosophy, Oruka's fieldwork method, professional philosophy, folk wisdom, and philosophic sagacity.

Academic overview for epistemology, ethics, Sufism, theodicy, and later Islamic philosophy.

IEP context for postclassical Islamic theology, Ashʿarite attribution debates, and doxographical classification.

IEP context row for Quine and the analytic-synthetic distinction.

Target-specific entry on Anaxagoras as an Ionian natural philosopher, his theory of Nous, seeds, perception, and influence.

IEP context for Anaxarchus as a Democritean figure and a reported link between atomist tendencies, Alexander's expedition, and Pyrrho.

Target-specific entry on Anaximander, the boundless apeiron, natural necessity, cosmology, geography, and the surviving fragment.

Target-specific entry on Anaximenes of Miletus, his dates, air as primary substance, and rarefaction-condensation theory.

IEP context for ancient Greek philosophy, including Pythagoras and Pythagoreanism in the Presocratic setting.

IEP context for ancient Greek skepticism, including Carneades, Academic skepticism, convincing impressions, and the pithanon as practical criterion.

IEP context row for Pyrrhonian and Academic skepticism, Sextus, suspension of judgment, the criterion problem, and ancient skeptical argument.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy context for ancient Greek skepticism, Pyrrho, Aenesidemus, Sextus Empiricus, epoche, appearances, and later skeptical method.

IEP context for Singer, equal consideration of interests, moral equality theories, and the animal ethics debate.

IEP context for Anselm.

Target-specific entry on Anselm, his life, method, ontological argument, major dialogues, free choice, truth, and atonement.

IEP entry on Antisthenes, Socratic ethics, logic, language, and Cynic origins.

IEP profile for Antisthenes as Socratic companion, Cynic founder or forerunner, teacher of Diogenes, and critic of luxury and convention.

IEP entry on Aristippus of Cyrene, Socratic hedonism, self-command, and Cyrenaic origins.

IEP profile on Aristotle's life, writings, metaphysics, psychology, ethics, politics, and influence.

IEP context for Aristotelian knowledge, demonstration, induction, and scientific explanation.

IEP context for Aristotelian ethics, virtue, practical wisdom, and flourishing.

IEP context for Aristotle's political philosophy and the polis.

IEP treatment of Schopenhauer's life, metaphysics, aesthetics, ethics, and reception.

IEP profile for Augustine's life, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political thought, and philosophy of religion.

IEP profile supporting Austin's dates, Oxford ordinary language method, speech acts, performatives, and major works.

IEP entry on Avicenna, metaphysics, psychology, epistemology, prophecy, and influence.

IEP entry on Avicenna's logic and secondary intelligibles.

IEP article used for Avicenna's biography, metaphysics, epistemology, psychology, and Islamic philosophical setting.

IEP context for Benedict de Spinoza.

IEP profile for Russell, including analytic philosophy, logic, mathematics, epistemology, religion, ethics, and politics.

Target-specific article on Bhartrihari as a philosopher of language and religion, with approximate dates and philosophical context for grammar, logic, semantics, and ontology.

IEP context for Bhedabheda Vedanta.

IEP context for bioethics, medical decision-making, personhood, and public applied ethics debates.

IEP article covering Boethius as late antique philosopher, logician, theological writer, and author of the Consolation of Philosophy.

IEP article on British empiricism, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, experience, and the tradition's historiography.

IEP row for Siddhartha Gautama, early Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths, dependent origination, not-self, ethics, meditation, and Buddhist philosophical reception.

IEP context for Buddhist philosophical sources and early śramaṇa debate settings.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy context for Buddhist philosophy, no-self, impermanence, and dependent arising.

IEP search surface for Buddhist philosophy.

Detailed reference entry on Camus as French-Algerian journalist, playwright, novelist, philosophical essayist, Nobel laureate, and moral thinker.

IEP context for care ethics and feminist approaches to moral relation and responsibility.

Target-specific article on Cheng Hao life, Huangpi birth, Luoyang family identity, Mingdao name, moral cultivation, ren, li, and the Cheng brothers place in Neo-Confucianism.

Target-specific article on Cheng Yi, li, human nature, mind, moral cultivation, investigation of things, reverent composure, and the Cheng-Zhu line.

IEP search surface for Chinese philosophy.

IEP historical overview context for Tang Buddhism, Chan, the Platform Sutra, Huineng, and Chinese Buddhist philosophical development.

IEP overview context for Legalism and Hanfei, identifying Han Fei as an advisor of the Han state and connecting the Hanfeizi with the Qin unification.

IEP topic overview context for Chinese philosophy, Buddhism, Chan, meditation, mind, language, ethics, and religion.

IEP search surface for Christian mysticism.

Target-specific reference entry for Chrysippus life, Stoic logic, epistemology, ethics, theology, physics, fate, and his role as systematizer of early Stoicism.

IEP profile on Cicero and his philosophical writings, including the Roman setting for Academic skeptical transmission.

Specialized reference on Cicero as a source and practitioner of Academic skepticism, probable reasoning, anti-dogmatic method, and Academica.

Target-specific reference page for Cicero biography, philosophical works, rhetoric, republican politics, law, and moral theory.

IEP Confucianism row retained as tradition context for Xunzi.

Reference article for Kongzi, traditional dates, state of Lu setting, Analects transmission, moral cultivation, ritual, language, politics, and East Asian reception.

IEP context for consequentialism.

IEP context for contemporary skepticism.

IEP context for continental rationalism and Wolffianism's rationalist setting.

Context row for cultural relativism and cosmopolitan ethics; not a dedicated Appiah profile.

IEP context for Cynicism, Antisthenes, virtue as sufficient for happiness, askesis, and the Cynic ethical tradition.

IEP article for the Cyrenaics and Aristippus, including ethics, pleasure, sensation, and Socratic background.

IEP entry on Cyrenaic hedonism, Aristippus, Arete, Hegesias, Anniceris, and Theodorus.

Reference article for Dai Zhen, also known as Dai Dongyuan or Tai Chen, with biography, Qing context, and philosophical themes.

IEP article on Dai Zhen as Qing philosopher, polymath, and critic of Neo-Confucian metaphysics.

IEP Daoism context for Zhuangzi, wuwei, naturalness, and classical Daoist thought.

IEP Daoist philosophy context row retained as school evidence.

Reference article covering Hume's life, works, empiricism, skepticism, moral psychology, politics, religion, and legacy.

IEP context for deconstruction and Derrida's philosophical method.

IEP entry on deconstruction as a philosophical and critical practice.

IEP context for democracy.

IEP profile surface for Democritus and ancient atomism.

IEP article on Diderot, Enlightenment materialism, criticism, and the Encyclopedie.

Reference article on Diderot's life, Enlightenment context, materialism, art theory, works, and influence.

IEP profile for Derrida, deconstruction, major works, language, ethics, politics, and influence.

IEP context for Descartes's distinction between mind and body and the interaction problem.

Reference article for Erasmus biography, humanism, works, free-will debate, education, satire, and religious reform.

Dedicated entry for Diogenes of Apollonia, air as intelligent principle, soul, physiology, chronology, father Apollothemis, and the On Nature tradition.

IEP context for dualism and mind.

IEP Husserl context for phenomenological inheritance.

Reference entry on embodiment in Husserl's lectures, manuscripts, and posthumously published work.

IEP context for global obligations, aid, and egalitarian themes connected to Singer's famine-relief argument.

IEP context for global egalitarianism and the patriotism-cosmopolitanism dispute.

Reference profile for Empedocles of Acragas, his cosmology, epistemology, religious teaching, and fragmentary evidence.

IEP context for eighteenth-century Enlightenment philosophy.

IEP search surface for Enlightenment.

IEP context connecting Singer to sentience, animals, environmental ethics, and the limits of anthropocentrism.

Reference profile for Epictetus as a Roman-period Stoic teacher, formerly enslaved student of Musonius Rufus, and founder of the Nicopolis school.

Reference profile for Epicurus of Samos, including atomism, epistemology, pleasure, friendship, death, gods, and the Garden.

Context row for ethics and moral philosophy; not a dedicated Appiah profile.

IEP context for evidence.

IEP existentialism context row.

IEP context for fallibilism.

Reference entry for Fazang, Huayan metaphysics, interpenetration, the Golden Lion, and the classification of Buddhist teachings.

Context row for feminist ethics and moral vulnerability; not a dedicated Butler profile.

IEP feminist ethics context that cites Young on uptake, voice, and exclusion from public discourse.

IEP profile for Foucault as a transdisciplinary philosopher of history, power, knowledge, discourse, subjectivity, and critique.

IEP context for Foucault on ethics, practices of freedom, care of the self, subjectivation, and ancient truth-telling.

IEP context for Foucault on power, discipline, governmentality, biopolitics, and political rationality.

Reference entry for Bacon's empiricism, inductive method, critique of scholasticism, political career, and scientific program.

IEP article on Bacon, induction, idols, natural philosophy, and the Baconian method.

IEP context for Francis Hutcheson.

IEP context for Frankfurt School critical theory and Marcuse among Horkheimer, Adorno, Fromm, and later critical theorists; not a dedicated Marcuse profile.

IEP context for critical theory and post-Marxist cultural analysis relevant to Baudrillard.

Reference entry for Frege as German logician, mathematician, philosopher, inventor of modern quantificational logic, logicist, and founder of analytic philosophy.

Reference context for Frege on sense, reference, thought, compositionality, indirect contexts, names, concepts, and the philosophy of language.

Reference entry for Nietzsche's biography, works, nihilism, genealogy, perspectivism, art, religion critique, and major philosophical themes.

IEP context for geometrical method.

IEP context for Fichte within German idealism.

IEP capability approach entry with direct Nussbaum discussion; not a dedicated Nussbaum profile.

IEP search surface for Gongsun Long.

Reference entry for Gorgias as Sicilian philosopher, orator, rhetorician, sophist, teacher of civic rhetoric, and author of On Non-Being, Encomium of Helen, and Defense of Palamedes.

Reference context for Leibniz on perception, apperception, petites perceptions, monads, mind-body relation, and pre-established harmony.

IEP context for Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.

IEP context for the Cappadocians, noting Gregory of Nazianzus as brilliant orator, author of the Theological Orations, and member of the Cappadocian consensus.

IEP context on hedonism relevant to Epicurean ethics and later debates.

Reference context for Hegel's ethical life, civil society, state, freedom, history, and political philosophy.

IEP search surface for Heinrich Suso.

IEP topic context for Gregory Nazianzen and the Cappadocians on astronomy, astrology, chance, necessity, freedom, and providence.

IEP profile for Heraclitus, Ephesus, logos, unity in experience, political remarks, paradox, flux, and criticism of predecessors.

IEP hermeneutics context for Heideggerian interpretation.

IEP context for Hindu philosophy, Vedic thought, sacred speech, ritual order, and the early textual horizon around Rigvedic philosophical reflection.

IEP context for African philosophy and the debate in which Oruka's four trends and sage philosophy became central; not a dedicated Oruka profile.

IEP historical context for Warring States intellectual pluralism, Chinese schools, Mohism, Daoism, Confucianism, and disputation.

IEP dedicated profile for Huineng, biography, mythic layers, Platform Sutra, no-thought, sudden awakening, ritual, text, and later influence.

IEP context row for human dignity and capabilities theory.

Thematic entry for Hume's critique of natural theology, miracles, design arguments, and religious belief.

Thematic entry for Hume's account of causation, necessary connection, custom, and inductive inference.

Thematic entry on imagination, association, belief, memory, and the mental mechanisms in Hume's science of human nature.

IEP profile for Ibn Rushd, life, Aristotelianism, commentaries, Decisive Treatise, Incoherence, and influence.

IEP article on Camus, absurdity, revolt, ethics, and his relation to existentialism.

IEP context for al-Farabi, emanation, intellect, prophecy, and Arabic Neoplatonic-Aristotelian synthesis.

IEP context for al-Kindi, translation-era philosophy, metaphysics, and Greek sources in Arabic.

IEP article on Bhartrhari, Vakyapadiya, grammar as darshana, sphota, and Indian philosophy of language.

IEP article on Bonaventure, Franciscan scholastic theology, illumination, exemplarism, and ascent.

IEP introduction to existentialism and its themes of freedom, choice, death, meaning, and authenticity.

IEP overview of German Idealism, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, post-Kantian metaphysics, and systematic philosophy.

IEP article on Hegel, absolute idealism, dialectic, history, and philosophy of spirit.

IEP search surface for Ikhwan al-Safa / Brethren of Purity context and Neoplatonic encyclopedia traditions.

IEP context for Ismaili philosophy and Neoplatonic cosmology in Islamic intellectual traditions.

IEP search surface for Plotinus and the metaphysical background of Arabic Plotinus.

IEP Presocratics context for Heraclitus and early Greek philosophy.

IEP article on Beauvoir, existential feminism, ethics, ambiguity, and The Second Sex.

IEP entry on simplicity, included for Ockham's razor, parsimony, ontological economy, and methodological caution.

IEP article on Kierkegaard, religious existence, anxiety, despair, subjectivity, and faith.

IEP overview of universals, supporting the realism, conceptualism, nominalism, particulars, properties, and classification background.

IEP entry on William of Ockham, supporting Ockham, nominalism, logic, metaphysics, universals, and theological-political context.

IEP context for Xuanzang, Yogacara, translation, and the Chinese Faxiang school.

IEP direct Sartre entry focused on existentialism.

IEP direct Sartre political philosophy entry.

IEP context for Ikhwan al-Safa.

IEP context for Kant's universal ethics, history, and cosmopolitan purpose.

IEP category surface for Indian philosophy.

Context for analytic philosophy and Wittgenstein scholarship.

IEP entry explicitly tracing present-age Jainism to Mahāvīra and documenting Jain metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and ethics.

IEP profile for biography, Tractatus, ordinary-language philosophy, and later influence.

Private-language context for later Wittgenstein reception.

IEP context for international interventionism.

IEP search surface for Ishvarakrishna.

IEP context for Islamic philosophy, falsafa, kalam, Avicenna, al-Ghazali, and Ibn Rushd.

IEP category surface for Islamic philosophy.

IEP search surface for Islamic philosophy.

IEP context for Ismaili philosophy.

IEP entry on Jacques Derrida and the development of deconstruction.

IEP profile for Lyotard, postmodernity, language games, the differend, and metanarratives.

IEP context for Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

IEP context for Bentham.

IEP profile for Fichte's life, works, Wissenschaftslehre, ethics, law, and religion.

IEP profile for Dewey's life, pragmatism, inquiry, education, ethics, democracy, and religion.

IEP profile for John Duns Scotus, scholasticism, metaphysics, cognition, free will, logic, and theology.

IEP context for John Duns Scotus.

IEP profile for Locke and his general philosophy.

IEP profile for Mill, biography, utilitarianism, liberty, logic, induction, and political philosophy.

IEP profile for Habermas, communicative rationality, public sphere, discourse ethics, and critical theory.

IEP context for just war theory.

IEP search surface for Kang Youwei.

IEP Kant overview covering critical philosophy, mind, knowledge, morality, aesthetics, religion, and influence.

IEP context for Kant transcendental idealism.

IEP account of Kant on beauty, sublimity, judgment, taste, genius, and art.

IEP account of Kantian metaphysics, transcendental idealism, categories, synthetic a priori knowledge, and the Critique of Pure Reason.

IEP Kant context for autonomy, morality, freedom, and categorical-imperative arguments.

IEP account of Kant's religion, moral faith, radical evil, and relation between reason and Christianity.

IEP search surface for Kapila.

IEP entry on Laozi, the Daodejing, and Daoist philosophical themes.

IEP Laozi profile documenting legendary biography, 6th-century BCE floruit convention, Daodejing attribution, Daoist philosophy, and religious Daoist deity reception.

IEP search surface for Chinese Legalism.

Reference overview for Leibniz as early modern rationalist, polymath, logician, metaphysician, theologian, and author of Theodicy, New Essays, Monadology, and related works.

Reference context for Leibniz on causation, intersubstantial interaction, pre-established harmony, and the relation between metaphysics and physical explanation.

Reference context for predicate-in-subject truth, sufficient reason, monads, pre-established harmony, idealism, free will, evil, space, time, and indiscernibles.

Reference context for Leibniz on the syllogism, universal calculus, propositional logic, modal logic, characteristic numbers, and the logical program behind the Art of Combinations.

IEP context for Leibniz’s metaphysics.

Reference context for Leibniz on possible worlds, divine choice, contingency, necessity, freedom, and the best possible world.

IEP search surface for Liang Qichao.

IEP context row for liberalism and individual liberty.

IEP entry for Locke on ideas, knowledge, empiricism, science, testimony, and religious belief.

IEP entry for Locke on moral philosophy and ethics.

IEP entry for Locke on political philosophy, property, government, toleration, and natural rights.

IEP context for logical positivism, verification, scientific philosophy, and Carnap's analytic setting.

Scholarly encyclopedia context for Indian materialism, including Ajita Kesakambalin as a founder or early formalizer of the materialist system.

Peer-reviewed IEP entry on Lucretius, Epicureanism, naturalism, science, religion, and reception.

IEP context for Madhva and Dvaita Vedanta.

IEP context for Madhyamaka Buddhist philosophy and emptiness.

Dedicated IEP profile for Marcus Aurelius, his life, Stoicism, Epictetus influence, and the Meditations.

IEP profile for Ficino, Renaissance Platonism, Platonic Theology, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and love.

IEP profile for Heidegger, ontology, Dasein, Being and Time, technology, and later thought.

IEP profile for Merleau-Ponty and embodied phenomenology.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy context for medieval philosophy and scholastic traditions around Aquinas.

IEP category surface for medieval philosophy.

IEP context for beauty, number, order, music, proportion, and symbolic interpretation in medieval thought relevant to Isidore.

IEP context for Meister Eckhart.

IEP article on Mencius as a central Confucian thinker of moral psychology and humane government.

IEP profile for Mencius, the Mencius text, xingshan, the four sprouts, benevolent government, and moral cultivation.

IEP context mentioning Posidonius in the blended Hellenistic and early imperial philosophical environment.

IEP context for Vedic authority, sacred language, and ritual hermeneutics.

IEP row for modal logic, necessity, possibility, and semantics background relevant to Kripke's early technical work.

IEP context row identifying Zhang Zhidong and Quanxue Pian as representative of modern Chinese transformational philosophy.

IEP article on Montesquieu, political liberty, law, and institutional balance.

IEP profile for Mozi, Mohism, impartial care, anti-aggression, Heaven, ghosts, meritocracy, and practical benefit.

IEP context for Mulla Sadra.

IEP search surface for Mulla Sadra.

IEP context for multiculturalism, cultural pluralism, and anti-essentialist cosmopolitan accounts of culture.

IEP context for mysticism.

IEP entry supporting Nāgārjuna, catuṣkoṭi, emptiness, dependent origination, and Madhyamaka interpretive context.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy context for natural law and Aquinas's practical philosophy.

IEP context for natural theology.

IEP context for the Neo-Confucian tradition whose Ming and Song-Yuan lineages Huang reconstructed and evaluated.

IEP search surface for Neo-Confucianism.

Context reference for Neoplatonism, hierarchy, the One, soul, and late antique philosophical schools around Damascius.

IEP profile for Machiavelli on life, Florence, The Prince, Discourses, republicanism, and political method.

Reference context for Nietzsche's ethics, value creation, ressentiment, master and slave morality, and critique of moral objectivity.

IEP context for nihilism.

Reference entry for Nyaya epistemology, pramanas, logic, categories, metaphysics, and liberation-oriented rational inquiry.

IEP context for occasionalism.

IEP alternate Origen entry URL for source discovery and continuity

Philosophy encyclopedia entry centered on Origen's Christian Platonism, On First Principles, and Against Celsus

IEP search surface for Oruka.

Parmenides context for Melissus and Eleatic monism.

IEP profile for Peirce, including biography, pragmaticism, semiotics, categories, inquiry, community, fallibilism, truth, and the interpretation of his philosophy.

IEP personal-identity context for Locke.

IEP context for the Cappadocian distinction between ousia and hypostasis and Gregory Nazianzus within later personalist interpretations of personhood.

Philosophy encyclopedia entry on Abelard's life and thought

IEP context for Lyotard's early Phenomenology and phenomenological background.

IEP context for later Epicurean papyri and Philodemus, with Hermarchus serving as a predecessor in the Epicurean school.

IEP education context for Dewey's educational philosophy.

IEP context for Rousseau's Emile and natural education.

IEP philosophy-of-language context for ordinary language, meaning, reference, pragmatics, and Austin's method.

IEP context for Renaissance sources of peace thought and humanist political ethics.

IEP category surface for philosophy of science.

IEP context for social theory, explanation, and Habermas-style critique of positivism.

IEP context naming Hugh's Didascalicon for its elevated treatment of the mechanical arts alongside the liberal arts.

IEP Plato context for the Academy, Socratic-Platonic transmission, and late dialogues.

IEP context for Plato's Laws and the late Platonic framework around Philip's reported editing of the text.

IEP context for Plato's Phaedo as a dialogue about Socrates' final hours, soul, immortality, and philosophical death.

IEP context for Plato's Academy and the school tradition after Plato.

Context source for the Old Academy, Plato successors, and the institutional setting in which Crantor studied and wrote.

IEP context for Plotinian metaphysics, the One, intellect, soul, and later Neoplatonic reception.

IEP context for political realism.

IEP context for Derrida's relation to postmodern and poststructuralist philosophy.

IEP context for pragmatism and Dewey.

Reference entry for Presocratic context, atomism, Leucippus, Democritus, and the development of early Greek natural philosophy.

IEP context for the Older Sophists, including Hippias, Prodicus, Gorgias, rhetoric, and sophistic education.

IEP search surface for Pseudo-Dionysius.

IEP context for Dionysian negative theology, mystical ascent, hierarchy, and language about God that frames Suso's late medieval Dominican mystical vocabulary; not a dedicated Suso profile.

IEP context for Buddhist personal identity debates and no-self controversies.

IEP context for Pythagorean biography, discipline, number, and the tradition Iamblichus systematized.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy target for Pythagoras and Pythagoreanism.

IEP Quine philosophy of science anchor/search target; retained as source/context evidence only.

IEP context for Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita.

IEP context for rationalism and Descartes's place in early modern rationalist philosophy.

Renaissance philosophy context for human dignity, humanism, Platonism, Aristotelian recovery, and Pico's intellectual setting.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy profile for Descartes, method, mind-body dualism, and rationalism.

IEP context for René Descartes.

IEP context for Descartes scientific method.

IEP search surface for republicanism.

IEP context for Robert Boyle.

IEP context for Roger Bacon.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy profile for Bacon, mathematics, optics, natural science, experience, and scholastic method.

IEP search surface for Rousseau.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy profile for Carnap, logical positivism, semantics, and philosophy of science.

IEP Sāṅkhya entry for Īśvarakṛṣṇa, the Kārikā, classical Sāṃkhya dualism, pramāṇas, prakṛti, puruṣa, guṇas, and liberation.

IEP search surface for Sāṅkhya.

IEP profile on Kripke, modal logic, naming, necessity, and reference.

Reference entry for Schelling's life, works, Naturphilosophie, transcendental idealism, freedom, art, mythology, and revelation.

IEP search surface for Scholasticism.

IEP search surface for School of Names.

IEP search surface for Scotism.

IEP search surface for Scottish Enlightenment.

IEP search surface for Self-Strengthening Movement.

IEP profile row for Seneca as Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and author of essays and letters on virtue, anger, death, and self-command.

IEP profile row for Sengzhao, Zhaolun, early Chinese Madhyamaka, Sanlun reception, language, conceptualization, emptiness, wisdom, and nirvana.

Target-specific IEP entry on Amartya Sen's capability approach, freedom, agency, and human development.

Reference row for Beauvoir as existentialist, feminist theorist, novelist, autobiographer, and public intellectual.

Context for political obligation and social contract interpretation, relevant to the Crito dialogue while not making Crito the author of the argument.

Context article on Socrates and the final-days tradition that frames Crito as a Socratic companion and dramatic witness.

IEP search surface for Socratic method.

IEP context for Antiphon and the sophistic debate over nomos, physis, rhetoric, and social convention.

Reference row for Kierkegaard as Danish philosopher of subjectivity, faith, stages of life, despair, irony, and existential influence.

IEP treatment of Spinoza's determinism, freedom, adequate understanding, and critique of free will.

IEP profile for Spinoza, including life, substance monism, ethics, epistemology, and early modern context.

IEP subentry on Spinoza's adequate ideas, forms of knowledge, truth, error, and rational understanding.

IEP subentry on Spinoza's substance, attributes, modes, God-or-Nature, causality, and necessity.

IEP context for Spinoza’s metaphysics.

IEP subentry on Spinoza's ethics, conatus, affects, freedom, blessedness, and the intellectual love of God.

IEP subentry on Spinoza's political thought, democracy, natural right, state power, and freedom of philosophizing.

IEP subentry on Spinoza's biblical criticism, theology, prophecy, miracles, and religion in public life.

IEP entry for the Stoa Poikile, Zeno's teaching place, and the origin of the Stoic school name.

IEP context for Stoic ethics, virtue, indifferents, passions, and living according to nature.

IEP context row for Stoic logic, physics, ethics, virtue, and Roman reception.

IEP context for Vaisheshika substance theory and Prasastapada's expansion of the canonical category list.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry for Thales, Miletus, water, earth on water, geometry, astronomy, and ancient testimony.

Methodological reference for the phenomenological reduction and epoché in Husserlian phenomenology.

IEP Adorno context row for Dialectic of Enlightenment and Frankfurt School coauthorship.

IEP Theophrastus page and image/context surface for the Peripatetic successor to Aristotle.

IEP context for Thomas Aquinas.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry for Thomas Aquinas, scholasticism, metaphysics, natural theology, ethics, and political philosophy.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Hobbes's method, science, and philosophical construction.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Hobbes's state of nature, sovereign authority, obligation, and political order.

IEP context for Thomas Hobbes moral and political philosophy.

IEP offers public scholarly context for Nagel on consciousness, moral philosophy, and objectivity.

IEP context for Thomas Reid on free will.

Reference row for Reid on perception, common sense, and the critique of the theory of ideas.

IEP entry on Reid's philosophy of mind, common sense, and critique of the way of ideas.

Reference row for Reid on active powers, will, moral liberty, and responsibility.

IEP search surface for Tiantai.

IEP profile for Tusi on ethics, logic, astronomy, mathematics, theology, Ismaili and Shi'i context, and major works.

IEP context for Upanishadic continuation of Vedic reflection.

IEP profile for Vasubandhu as a major Buddhist thinker and Yogācāra source.

IEP biography and work overview for Vasubandhu, Puruṣapura/Gandhāra, Abhidharmakośa, Yogācāra, and Mahāyāna writings.

IEP article on Voltaire and Enlightenment critiques of religion, tolerance, and politics.

IEP profile for Wang Bi, dates, xuanxue, Laozi commentary, Yijing commentary, nonbeing, and classical interpretation.

IEP context for Wang Yangming.

IEP profile for Wang Yangming, xinxue, liangzhi, and moral self-cultivation.

IEP context for philosophy of war.

IEP search surface for Wei Yuan.

IEP profile/context row for Quine and analytic philosophy.

IEP profile for William James.

IEP profile for Xenophanes, fragments, theology, epistemology, and natural explanation.

IEP profile for Xenophon, Socratic writings, political thought, Anabasis, Cyropaedia, Hellenica, and practical philosophy.

IEP search surface for Xenophon.

Dedicated IEP entry for Guo Xiang, Kuo Hsiang, Zixuan, the Zhuangzi commentary, the 33-chapter arrangement, ziran, self-transformation, wuwei, and the Xiang Xiu authorship controversy.

IEP Xuanzang row used as real context for Kuiji's teacher and Faxiang/Yogācāra transmission; not a dedicated Kuiji profile.

IEP context for Xunzi.

IEP context for Xunzi.

IEP entry for Xunzi, Xun Kuang, human nature, ritual, education, names, Heaven, and stages of learning.

Philosophy reference entry on the Yoga Sutras, classical Yoga, and Patanjali

IEP entry for Zeno's paradoxes, Achilles, Dichotomy, Arrow, Stadium, and interpretations of motion.

IEP profile for Zhang Zai, Chang Tsai, qi metaphysics, Western Inscription, human nature, moral education, and Song Neo-Confucianism.

IEP search surface for Zhiyi.

IEP profile for Zhou Dunyi, Daozhou/Hunan context, name variants, Taijitu Shuo, Tongshu, sincerity, and Neo-Confucian significance.

IEP context for Zhu Xi.

IEP Zhuangzi context noting the received text as edited and arranged by Guo Xiang and preserving the philosophical setting of the commentary tradition.