Encyclopedie / Dictionnaire raisonne des sciences, des arts et des metiers
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No full text is imported.","Structure":"One work-cluster page with title, alternate title context, explicit integer display year, date note, evidence note, discipline mapping, and public source evidence."},"Arguments":["The Encyclopedie organizes arts, sciences, and trades into a public system of knowledge, with d\u0027Alembert as co-editor and major mathematical-scientific contributor."],"Influence":{"InfluencedBy":"Isaac Newton, Rene Descartes, John Locke, Francis Bacon, Pierre Varignon, Denis Diderot, Voltaire, and the French academies.","InfluenceOn":""},"Significance":["Accepted as a direct editorial/work-cluster row via ARTFL, Britannica, BnF, Wikipedia, and source-image evidence.","The work remains relevant to scientific method, mathematical modeling, rational mechanics, Enlightenment public knowledge, encyclopedia projects, philosophy of science, and secular classifications of learning."],"EvidenceNote":["Accepted as a direct editorial/work-cluster row via ARTFL, Britannica, BnF, Wikipedia, and source-image evidence."],"MainSections":[{"Kind":"RawSection","Title":"Full Text","BodyHtml":"\u003cp class=\"dz-philo__section-copy dz-philo__full-text-source\"\u003eFull text from \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Averroes\"\u003eWikisource: 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica/Averroes\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003carticle class=\"dz-philo__full-text-body\"\u003e\n\u003c/span\u003e \n\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cspan\u003e\u003cspan title=\"Page:EB1911\u0026#95;-\u0026#95;Volume\u0026#95;03.djvu/73\"\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026#8203;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003eAVERROES\u003c/b\u003e [Abūl-Walīd Muḥammad ibn-Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad ibn-Rushd] (1126–1198), Arabian philosopher, was born at Cordova. His early life was occupied in mastering the curriculum of theology, jurisprudence, mathematics, medicine and philosophy, under the approved teachers of the time. The years of his prime fell during the last period of Mahommedan rule in Spain under the \u003ca href=\"https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Almohades\" title=\"1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Almohades\"\u003eAlmohades\u003c/a\u003e (\u003ci\u003eq.v.\u003c/i\u003e). It was Ibn-Tufail (Abubacer), the philosophic vizier of Yusef, who introduced Averroes to that prince, and Avenzoar (Ibn-Zuhr), the greatest of Moslem physicians, was his friend. Averroes, who was versed in the Malekite system of law, was made cadi of Seville (1169), and in similar appointments the next twenty-five years of his life were passed. We find him at different periods in Seville, Cordova and Morocco, probably as physician to Yusef al-Mansur, who took pleasure in engaging him in discussions on the theories of philosophy and their bearings on the faith of Islam. But science and free thought then, as now, in Islam, depended almost solely on the tastes of the wealthy and the favour of the monarch. The ignorant fanaticism of the multitude viewed speculative studies with deep dislike and distrust, and deemed any one a Zendik (infidel) who did not rest content with the natural science of the Koran. These smouldering hatreds burst into open flame about the year 1195. Averroes was accused of heretical opinions and pursuits, stripped of his honours, and banished to a place near Cordova, where his actions were closely watched. At the same time efforts were made to stamp out all liberal culture in Andalusia, so far as it went beyond the little medicine, arithmetic and astronomy required for practical life. But the storm soon passed. Averroes was recalled to Morocco when the transient passion of the people had been satisfied, and for a brief period survived his restoration to honour. He died in the year before his patron, al-Mansur, with whom (in 1199) the political power of the Moslems came to an end, as did the culture of liberal science with Averroes. The philosopher left several sons, some of whom became jurists like his own grandfather. One of them has left an essay, expounding his father’s theory of the intellect. The personal character of Averroes is known to us only in a general way, and as we can gather it from his writings. His clear, exhaustive and dignified style of treatment evidences the rectitude and nobility of the man. In the histories of his own nation he has little place; the renown which spread in his lifetime to the East ceased with his death, and he left no school. Yet, from a note in a manuscript, we know that he had intelligent readers in Spain more than a century afterwards. His historic fame came from the Christian Schoolmen, whom he almost initiated into the system of Aristotle, and who, but vaguely discerning the expositors who preceded, admired in his commentaries the accumulated results of two centuries of labours.\n\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe literary works of Averroes include treatises on jurisprudence, grammar, astronomy, medicine and philosophy. In 1859 a work of Averroes was for the first time published in Arabic by the Bavarian Academy, and a German translation appeared in 1873 by the editor, J. Müller. It is a treatise entitled \u003ci\u003ePhilosophy and Theology\u003c/i\u003e, and, with the exception of a German version of the essay on the conjunction of the intellect with man, is the first translation which enables the non-Semitic scholar to form any adequate idea of Averroes. The Latin translations of most of his works are barbarous and obscure. A great part of his writings, particularly on jurisprudence and astronomy, as well as essays on special logical subjects, prolegomena to philosophy, criticisms on Avicenna and Alfarabius (Fārābī), remain in manuscript in the Escorial and other libraries. The Latin editions of his medical works include the \u003ci\u003eColliget\u003c/i\u003e (\u003ci\u003ei.e. Kulliyyat\u003c/i\u003e, or summary), a \u003ci\u003erésumé\u003c/i\u003e of medical science, and a commentary on Avicenna’s poem on medicine; but Averroes, in medical renown, always stood far below Avicenna. The Latin editions of his philosophical works comprise the \u003ci\u003eCommentaries on Aristotle\u003c/i\u003e, the \u003ci\u003eDestructio Destructionis\u003c/i\u003e (against Ghazāli), the \u003ci\u003eDe Substantia Orbis\u003c/i\u003e and a double treatise \u003ci\u003eDe Animae Beatitudine\u003c/i\u003e. The Commentaries of Averroes fall under three heads:—the larger commentaries, in which a paragraph is quoted at large, and its clauses expounded one by one; the medium commentaries, which cite only the first words of a section; and the paraphrases or analyses, treatises on the subjects of the Aristotelian books. The larger commentary was an innovation of Averroes; for Avicenna, copied by Albertus Magnus, gave under the rubrics furnished by Aristotle works in which, though the materials were borrowed, the grouping was his own. The great commentaries exist only for the \u003ci\u003ePosterior Analytics\u003c/i\u003e, \u003ci\u003ePhysics\u003c/i\u003e, \u003ci\u003eDe Caelo\u003c/i\u003e, \u003ci\u003eDe Anima\u003c/i\u003e and \u003ci\u003eMetaphysics\u003c/i\u003e. On the \u003ci\u003eHistory of Animals\u003c/i\u003e no commentary at all exists, and Plato’s \u003ci\u003eRepublic\u003c/i\u003e is substituted for the then inaccessible \u003ci\u003ePolitics\u003c/i\u003e. The Latin editions of these works between 1480 and 1580 number about 100. The first\u0026#32;\u003cspan\u003e\u003cspan title=\"Page:EB1911\u0026#95;-\u0026#95;Volume\u0026#95;03.djvu/74\"\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026#8203;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eappeared at Padua (1472); about fifty were published at Venice, the best-known being that by the Juntas (1552–1553) in ten volumes folio.\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003eSee E. Renan, \u003ci\u003eAverroès et l’Averroïsme\u003c/i\u003e (2nd ed., Paris, 1861); S. Munk, \u003ci\u003eMélanges\u003c/i\u003e, 418-458; G. Stöckl, \u003ci\u003ePhil. d. Mittelalters\u003c/i\u003e, ii. 67-124; \u003ci\u003eAverroes (Vater und Sohn), Drei Abhandl. über d. Conjunction d. separaten Intellects mit d. Menschen\u003c/i\u003e, trans. into German from the Arabic version of Sam. Ben-Tibbon, by Dr J. Hercz (Berlin, 1869); T. J. de Boer, \u003ci\u003eHistory of Philosophy in Islam\u003c/i\u003e (London, 1903), ch. vi.; A. F. M. Mehren in \u003ci\u003eMuséon\u003c/i\u003e, vii. 613-627; viii. 1-20; Carl Brockelmann, \u003ci\u003eGeschichte der arabischen Litteratur\u003c/i\u003e (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 461 f. See also \u003cspan\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Arabian_Philosophy\" title=\"1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Arabian Philosophy\"\u003eArabian Philosophy\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. \u003cspan\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026#160;(\u003cspan\u003e\u003ca href=\"/wiki/Author:William_Wallace_(1844-1897)\" title=\"Author:William Wallace (1844-1897)\"\u003eW. W.\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u0026#59; \u003cspan\u003e\u003ca href=\"/wiki/Author:Griffithes_Wheeler_Thatcher\" title=\"Author:Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher\"\u003eG. W. T.\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026#8193;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026#32;\n\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\n \u003c/article\u003e"},{"Kind":"TextSection","Title":"Core Thesis","Paragraphs":["The Encyclopedie organizes arts, sciences, and trades into a public system of knowledge, with d\u0027Alembert as co-editor and major mathematical-scientific contributor."]},{"Kind":"FieldSection","Title":"Classification","Fields":[{"Label":"Alternate Titles","Value":"Encyclopedie; Encyclopaedia; Diderot and d\u0027Alembert Encyclopedie"},{"Label":"Key Concepts","Value":"encyclopedia; classification; knowledge; arts; sciences; trades; public reason"},{"Label":"Methodology","Value":"Direct d\u0027Alembert work-cluster record based on Britannica, BnF, MacTutor, ARTFL, Gallica, Internet Archive, Wellcome, Wikisource, Gutenberg, catalog records, and scholarship. No full text is imported."},{"Label":"Structure","Value":"One work-cluster page with title, alternate title context, explicit integer display year, date note, evidence note, discipline mapping, and public source evidence."}]},{"Kind":"TextSection","Title":"Arguments","Paragraphs":["The Encyclopedie organizes arts, sciences, and trades into a public system of knowledge, with d\u0027Alembert as co-editor and major mathematical-scientific contributor."]},{"Kind":"FieldSection","Title":"Influence","Fields":[{"Label":"Influenced By","Value":"Isaac Newton, Rene Descartes, John Locke, Francis Bacon, Pierre Varignon, Denis Diderot, Voltaire, and the French academies."},{"Label":"Influence On","Value":"Enlightenment encyclopedism, mathematical physics, rational mechanics, philosophy of science, the classification of knowledge, wave mathematics, fluid mechanics, music theory, and modern secular public reason."}]},{"Kind":"TextSection","Title":"Significance","Paragraphs":["Accepted as a direct editorial/work-cluster row via ARTFL, Britannica, BnF, Wikipedia, and source-image evidence.","The work remains relevant to scientific method, mathematical modeling, rational mechanics, Enlightenment public knowledge, encyclopedia projects, philosophy of science, and secular classifications of learning."]},{"Kind":"TextSection","Title":"Evidence Note","Paragraphs":["Accepted as a direct editorial/work-cluster row via ARTFL, Britannica, BnF, Wikipedia, and source-image evidence."]}],"SectionSequence":["Back Link","Work Title","Deck","Author","Period","Era","Composition","Date Note","Region","Terra Avita","Terra Avita Region","Modern Country","Original Title","Language","Primary Discipline","Secondary Discipline","Tradition","Full Text","Core Thesis","Classification","Arguments","Influence","Significance","Evidence Note"],"Counts":{"ContextCards":3,"GeoCards":4,"DisciplineCards":2,"Links":11,"Sections":24,"Styles":2,"Scripts":1}}