Reconstruction in Philosophy
{"WorkMasterId":6308,"WpPageId":281295,"ParentWpPageId":193822,"Slug":"reconstruction-in-philosophy","Url":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/philosophers/john-dewey/reconstruction-in-philosophy/","RelativeUrl":"theos/humanities/philosophy/philosophers/john-dewey/reconstruction-in-philosophy/","HasFullText":true,"RawHtmlLength":454367,"CleanHtmlLength":398257,"Kicker":"Philosophy Work","Title":"Reconstruction in Philosophy","Deck":"Dewey calls for reconstructing philosophy through science, experience, democracy, fallibilism, and practical consequences.","BackLink":{"Text":"Back to John Dewey","Url":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/philosophers/john-dewey/"},"AuthorCard":{"Label":"Author","Title":"John Dewey","Url":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/philosophers/john-dewey/","MediaHref":"","ImageSrc":"https://chrisdeasy.com/wp-content/uploads/john-dewey-01-portrait-by-underwood-underwood.jpg","ImageAlt":"Underwood and Underwood portrait of John Dewey","FilterTerra":"North America","ClickText":"John Dewey","ClickHref":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/philosophers/john-dewey/","Copies":["1859 CE – 1952 CE","Burlington, Vermont","American pragmatist philosopher of instrumentalism, democratic experimentalism, progressive education, inquiry, experience, logic, ethics, aesthetics, public life, science, and naturalistic religion."]},"ContextCards":[{"Label":"Period","Key":"Period:4","Title":"Modern History","DateText":"1800 CE – 1944 CE","Url":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/eras-of-thought/philosophers-of-modern-history/"},{"Label":"Era","Key":"Era:11","Title":"Long 19th Century","DateText":"1870 CE – 1913 CE","Url":"https://chrisdeasy.com/theos/humanities/philosophy/eras-of-thought/philosophers-of-modern-history/philosophers-of-the-long-19th-century/"},{"Label":"Composition","Title":"1920 CE","Url":"","DateText":""}],"DateNote":"Displayed as 1920 CE for Reconstruction in Philosophy.","GeoCards":[{"Label":"Region","Key":"Region:1"},{"Label":"Terra Avita","Key":"TerraAvita:6"},{"Label":"Terra Avita Region","Key":"TerraAvitaRegion:25"},{"Label":"Modern Country","Key":"Country:USA:6"}],"OriginalTitle":"Reconstruction in Philosophy","Language":"English","DisciplineCards":[{"Label":"Primary Discipline","Key":"Discipline:metaphysics"},{"Label":"Secondary Discipline","Key":"Discipline:epistemology"}],"Tradition":"American pragmatism; instrumentalism; pragmatic naturalism; democratic experimentalism; progressive education","FullText":{"Title":"Full Text","Copy":"Public-domain full text from Project Gutenberg eBook #40089 .","Url":"","Label":"","Kicker":"","Cards":[]},"CoreThesis":["Dewey calls for reconstructing philosophy through science, experience, democracy, fallibilism, and practical consequences."],"Classification":{"AlternateTitles":"Reconstruction","KeyConcepts":"reconstruction; experience; science; democracy; pragmatism; consequences; method","Methodology":"Direct Dewey work-cluster record based on SEP, IEP, Britannica, Center for Dewey Studies, Dewey scholarship, catalog records, and public edition evidence. 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No full text is imported."},{"Label":"Structure","Value":"One work-cluster page with explicit integer display year, date note, evidence note, discipline mapping, and public source evidence."}]},{"Kind":"TextSection","Title":"Arguments","Paragraphs":["Dewey calls for reconstructing philosophy through science, experience, democracy, fallibilism, and practical consequences."]},{"Kind":"FieldSection","Title":"Influence","Fields":[{"Label":"Influenced By","Value":"William James, Charles Sanders Peirce, G. W. F. Hegel, Darwinian naturalism, experimental science, Jane Addams and social reform, American democratic institutions, and educational practice."},{"Label":"Influence On","Value":"Pragmatism, analytic and continental social philosophy, democratic theory, progressive education, inquiry theory, aesthetics, public philosophy, deliberative democracy, philosophy of science, and American philosophy."}]},{"Kind":"TextSection","Title":"Significance","Paragraphs":["Accepted as a direct Dewey work via Gutenberg, catalog, and scholarship evidence.","Dewey remains central for inquiry, democratic life, public problem-solving, education, experience, habits, art, values, religion as human faith, and experimental social intelligence."]},{"Kind":"TextSection","Title":"Evidence Note","Paragraphs":["Accepted as a direct Dewey work via Gutenberg, catalog, and scholarship evidence."]},{"Kind":"RawSection","Title":"Full Text","BodyHtml":"\u003cp class=\"dz-philo__section-copy dz-philo__full-text-source\"\u003ePublic-domain full text from \u003ca href=\"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/40089\"\u003eProject Gutenberg eBook #40089\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003carticle class=\"dz-philo__full-text-body\"\u003e\r\n\u003ch1\u003eRECONSTRUCTION IN\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPHILOSOPHY\u003c/h1\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch3\u003eBY\u003c/h3\u003e\r\n\u003ch2\u003eJOHN DEWEY\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003ch4\u003eProfessor of Philosophy in Columbia University\u003c/h4\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp class=\"figcenter\"\u003e\r\n\u003ca href=\"https://chrisdeasy.com/wp-content/uploads/gutenberg-reconstruction-in-philosophy-titlepage.jpg\"\u003e\r\n\u003cimg src=\"https://chrisdeasy.com/wp-content/uploads/gutenberg-reconstruction-in-philosophy-titlepage.jpg\" width=\"80\" height=\"120\" alt=\"\" title=\"\" /\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\r\n\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch3\u003eNEW YORK.\u003c/h3\u003e\r\n\u003ch2\u003eHENRY HOLT AND COMPANY\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\u003ch3\u003e1920\u003c/h3\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ch4\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eCopyright\u003c/span\u003e, 1920,\u003c/h4\u003e\r\n\u003ch4\u003eBY\u003c/h4\u003e\r\n\u003ch4\u003eHENRY HOLT AND COMPANY\u003c/h4\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch4\u003e\u003cspan class=\"u\"\u003eThe Quinn \u0026amp; Boden Company\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/h4\u003e\r\n\u003ch5\u003eBOOK MANUFACTURERS\u003c/h5\u003e\r\n\u003ch5\u003eRAHWAY \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; NEW JERSEY\u003c/h5\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"PREFATORY_NOTE\" id=\"PREFATORY_NOTE\"\u003ePREFATORY NOTE\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eBeing invited to lecture at the Imperial University of Japan in Tokyo\r\nduring February and March of the present year, I attempted an\r\ninterpretation of the reconstruction of ideas and ways of thought now\r\ngoing on in philosophy. While the lectures cannot avoid revealing the\r\nmarks of the particular standpoint of their author, the aim is to\r\nexhibit the general contrasts between older and newer types of\r\nphilosophic problems rather than to make a partisan plea in behalf of\r\nany one specific solution of these problems. I have tried for the most\r\npart to set forth the forces which make intellectual reconstruction\r\ninevitable and to prefigure some of the lines upon which it must\r\nproceed.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAny one who has enjoyed the unique hospitality of Japan will be\r\noverwhelmed with confusion if he endeavors to make an acknowledgment in\r\nany way commensurate to the kindnesses he received. Yet I must set down\r\nin the barest of black and white my grateful appreciation of them, and\r\nin particular record my ineffaceable impressions of the courtesy and\r\nhelp of the members of the department of philosophy of Tokyo University,\r\nand of my dear friends Dr. Ono and Dr. Nitobe.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp style=\u0027text-align: right\u0027\u003eJ. D.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSeptember, 1919.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"CONTENTS\" id=\"CONTENTS\"\u003eCONTENTS\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" summary=\"Table of Contents\"\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003csmall\u003eCHAPTER\u003c/small\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003csmall\u003ePAGE\u003c/small\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003eI\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eChanging Conceptions of Philosophy\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#CHAPTER_I\"\u003e1\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd class=\"tdl\"\u003eOrigin of philosophy in desire and imagination. Influence of community traditions and authority. Simultaneous development of matter-of-fact knowledge. Incongruity and conflict of the two types. Respective values of each type…. Classic philosophies (i) compensatory, (ii) dialectically formal, and (iii) concerned with \"superior\" Reality. Contemporary thinking accepts primacy of matter-of-fact knowledge and assigns to philosophy a social function rather than that of absolute knowledge.\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003eII\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eSome Historical Factors in Philosophical Reconstruction\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#CHAPTER_II\"\u003e28\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd class=\"tdl\"\u003eFrancis Bacon exemplifies the newer spirit…. He conceived knowledge as power. As dependent upon organized cooperative research…. As tested by promotion of social progress. The new thought reflected actual social changes, industrial, political, religious…. The new idealism.\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003eIII\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eThe Scientific Factor in Reconstruction of Philosophy\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#CHAPTER_III\"\u003e53\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd class=\"tdl\"\u003eScience has revolutionized our conception of Nature. Philosophy has to be transformed because no longer depending upon a science which accepts a closed, finite world. Or, fixed species. Or, superiority or rest to change and motion. Contrast of feudal with democratic conceptions. Elimination of final causes. Mechanical science and the possibility of control of nature. Respect for matter. New temper of imagination. Influence thus far technical rather than human and moral.\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003eIV\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eChanged Conceptions of Experience and Reason\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#CHAPTER_IV\"\u003e77\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd class=\"tdl\"\u003eTraditional conception of nature of experience. Limits of ancient civilization. Effect of classic idea on modern empiricism. Why a different conception is now possible. Psychological change emphasizes vital factor using environment. Effect upon traditional ideas of sensation and knowledge. Factor of organization. Socially, experience is now more inventive and regulative…. Corresponding change in idea of Reason. Intelligence is hypothetical and inventive. Weakness of historic Rationalism. Kantianism. Contrast of German and British philosophies. Reconstruction of empirical liberalism.\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003eV\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eChanged Conceptions of the Ideal and the Real\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#CHAPTER_V\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd class=\"tdl\"\u003eIdealization rooted in aversion to the disagreeable…. This fact has affected philosophy…. True reality is ideal, and hence changeless, complete. Hence contemplative knowledge is higher than experimental. Contrast with the modern practise of knowledge…. Significance of change…. The actual or realistic signifies conditions effecting change…. Ideals become methods rather than goals. Illustration from elimination of distance. Change in conception of philosophy…. The significant problems for philosophy…. Social understanding and conciliation. The practical problem of real and ideal.\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003eVI\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eThe Significance of Logical Reconstruction\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#CHAPTER_VI\"\u003e132\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd class=\"tdl\"\u003ePresent confusion as to logic. Logic is regulative and normative because empirical. Illustration from mathematics. Origin of thinking in conflicts. Confrontation with fact. Response by anticipation or prediction. Importance of hypotheses. Impartial inquiry. Importance of deductive function. Organization and classification. Nature of truth. Truth is adverbial, not a thing.\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003eVII\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eReconstruction in Moral Conceptions\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#CHAPTER_VII\"\u003e161\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd class=\"tdl\"\u003eCommon factor in traditional theories. Every moral situation unique. Supremacy of the specific or individualized case. Fallacy of general ends. Worth of generalization of ends and rules is intellectual. Harmfulness of division of goods into intrinsic and instrumental. Into natural and moral. Moral worth of natural science. Importance of discovery in morals. Abolishing Phariseeism…. Growth as the end. Optimism and pessimism. Conception of happiness. Criticism of utilitarianism. All life moral in so far as educative.\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003eVIII\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eReconstruction as Affecting Social Philosophy\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#CHAPTER_VIII\"\u003e187\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd class=\"tdl\"\u003eDefects of current logic of social thought. Neglect of specific situations. Defects of organic concept of society. Evils of notion of fixed self or individual. Doctrine of interests. Moral and institutional reform. Moral test of social institutions. Social pluralism. Political monism, dogma of National State. Primacy of associations. International humanism. Organization a subordinate conception. Freedom and democracy. Intellectual reconstruction when habitual will affect imagination and hence poetry and religion.\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"smcap\"\u003eIndex\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\r\n \u003ctd align=\"right\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"#INDEX\"\u003e217\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\r\n\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003c/table\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"RECONSTRUCTION_IN_PHILOSOPHY\" id=\"RECONSTRUCTION_IN_PHILOSOPHY\"\u003eRECONSTRUCTION IN PHILOSOPHY\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_1\" id=\"Page_1\"\u003e[Pg 1]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"CHAPTER_I\" id=\"CHAPTER_I\"\u003eCHAPTER I\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003eCHANGING CONCEPTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eMan differs from the lower animals because he preserves his past\r\nexperiences. What happened in the past is lived again in memory. About\r\nwhat goes on today hangs a cloud of thoughts concerning similar things\r\nundergone in bygone days. With the animals, an experience perishes as it\r\nhappens, and each new doing or suffering stands alone. But man lives in\r\na world where each occurrence is charged with echoes and reminiscences\r\nof what has gone before, where each event is a reminder of other things.\r\nHence he lives not, like the beasts of the field, in a world of merely\r\nphysical things but in a world of signs and symbols. A stone is not\r\nmerely hard, a thing into which one bumps; but it is a monument of a\r\ndeceased ancestor. A flame is not merely something which warms or burns,\r\nbut is a symbol of the enduring life of the household, of the abiding\r\nsource of cheer, nourishment and shelter to which man returns from his\r\ncasual wanderings. Instead of being a quick fork of fire which may sting\r\nand hurt, it is the hearth at which one worships and for which one\r\nfights. And all this which marks the difference between bestiality and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_2\" id=\"Page_2\"\u003e[Pg 2]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nhumanity, between culture and merely physical nature, is because man\r\nremembers, preserving and recording his experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe revivals of memory are, however, rarely literal. We naturally\r\nremember what interests us and because it interests us. The past is\r\nrecalled not because of itself but because of what it adds to the\r\npresent. Thus the primary life of memory is emotional rather than\r\nintellectual and practical. Savage man recalled yesterday\u0027s struggle\r\nwith an animal not in order to study in a scientific way the qualities\r\nof the animal or for the sake of calculating how better to fight\r\ntomorrow, but to escape from the tedium of today by regaining the thrill\r\nof yesterday. The memory has all the excitement of the combat without\r\nits danger and anxiety. To revive it and revel in it is to enhance the\r\npresent moment with a new meaning, a meaning different from that which\r\nactually belongs either to it or to the past. Memory is vicarious\r\nexperience in which there is all the emotional values of actual\r\nexperience without its strains, vicissitudes and troubles. The triumph\r\nof battle is even more poignant in the memorial war dance than at the\r\nmoment of victory; the conscious and truly human experience of the chase\r\ncomes when it is talked over and re-enacted by the camp fire. At the\r\ntime, attention is taken up with practical details and with the strain\r\nof uncertainty. Only later do the details compose into a story and fuse\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_3\" id=\"Page_3\"\u003e[Pg 3]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\ninto a whole of meaning. At the time of practical experience man exists\r\nfrom moment to moment, preoccupied with the task of the moment. As he\r\nre-surveys all the moments in thought, a drama emerges with a beginning,\r\na middle and a movement toward the climax of achievement or defeat.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSince man revives his past experience because of the interest added to\r\nwhat would otherwise be the emptiness of present leisure, the primitive\r\nlife of memory is one of fancy and imagination, rather than of accurate\r\nrecollection. After all, it is the story, the drama, which counts. Only\r\nthose incidents are selected which have a present emotional value, to\r\nintensify the present tale as it is rehearsed in imagination or told to\r\nan admiring listener. What does not add to the thrill of combat or\r\ncontribute to the goal of success or failure is dropped. Incidents are\r\nrearranged till they fit into the temper of the tale. Thus early man\r\nwhen left to himself, when not actually engaged in the struggle for\r\nexistence, lived in a world of memories which was a world of\r\nsuggestions. A suggestion differs from a recollection in that no attempt\r\nis made to test its correctness. Its correctness is a matter of relative\r\nindifference. The cloud suggests a camel or a man\u0027s face. It could not\r\nsuggest these things unless some time there had been an actual, literal\r\nexperience of camel and face. But the real likeness is of no account.\r\nThe main thing is the emotional interest\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_4\" id=\"Page_4\"\u003e[Pg 4]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e in tracing the camel or\r\nfollowing the fortunes of the face as it forms and dissolves.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eStudents of the primitive history of mankind tell of the enormous part\r\nplayed by animal tales, myths and cults. Sometimes a mystery is made out\r\nof this historical fact, as if it indicated that primitive man was moved\r\nby a different psychology from that which now animates humanity. But the\r\nexplanation is, I think, simple. Until agriculture and the higher\r\nindustrial arts were developed, long periods of empty leisure alternated\r\nwith comparatively short periods of energy put forth to secure food or\r\nsafety from attack. Because of our own habits, we tend to think of\r\npeople as busy or occupied, if not with doing at least with thinking and\r\nplanning. But then men were busy only when engaged in the hunt or\r\nfishing or fighting expedition. Yet the mind when awake must have some\r\nfilling; it cannot remain literally vacant because the body is idle. And\r\nwhat thoughts should crowd into the human mind except experiences with\r\nanimals, experiences transformed under the influence of dramatic\r\ninterest to make more vivid and coherent the events typical of the\r\nchase? As men in fancy dramatically re-lived the interesting parts of\r\ntheir actual lives, animals inevitably became themselves dramatized.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThey were true \u003ci\u003edramatis personæ\u003c/i\u003e and as such assumed the traits of\r\npersons. They too had desires,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_5\" id=\"Page_5\"\u003e[Pg 5]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e hopes and fears, a life of affections,\r\nloves and hates, triumphs and defeats. Moreover, since they were\r\nessential to the support of the community, their activities and\r\nsufferings made them, in the imagination which dramatically revived the\r\npast, true sharers in the life of the community. Although they were\r\nhunted, yet they permitted themselves after all to be caught, and hence\r\nthey were friends and allies. They devoted themselves, quite literally,\r\nto the sustenance and well-being of the community group to which they\r\nbelonged. Thus were produced not merely the multitude of tales and\r\nlegends dwelling affectionately upon the activities and features of\r\nanimals, but also those elaborate rites and cults which made animals\r\nancestors, heroes, tribal figure-heads and divinities.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eI hope that I do not seem to you to have gone too far afield from my\r\ntopic, the origin of philosophies. For it seems to me that the historic\r\nsource of philosophies cannot be understood except as we dwell, at even\r\ngreater length and in more detail, upon such considerations as these. We\r\nneed to recognize that the ordinary consciousness of the ordinary man\r\nleft to himself is a creature of desires rather than of intellectual\r\nstudy, inquiry or speculation. Man ceases to be primarily actuated by\r\nhopes and fears, loves and hates, only when he is subjected to a\r\ndiscipline which is foreign to human nature, which is, from the\r\nstand\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_6\" id=\"Page_6\"\u003e[Pg 6]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003epoint of natural man, artificial. Naturally our books, our\r\nscientific and philosophical books, are written by men who have\r\nsubjected themselves in a superior degree to intellectual discipline and\r\nculture. Their thoughts are habitually reasonable. They have learned to\r\ncheck their fancies by facts, and to organize their ideas logically\r\nrather than emotionally and dramatically. When they do indulge in\r\nreverie and day-dreaming\u0026mdash;which is probably more of the time than is\r\nconventionally acknowledged\u0026mdash;they are aware of what they are doing. They\r\nlabel these excursions, and do not confuse their results with objective\r\nexperiences. We tend to judge others by ourselves, and because\r\nscientific and philosophic books are composed by men in whom the\r\nreasonable, logical and objective habit of mind predominates, a similar\r\nrationality has been attributed by them to the average and ordinary man.\r\nIt is then overlooked that both rationality and irrationality are\r\nlargely irrelevant and episodical in undisciplined human nature; that\r\nmen are governed by memory rather than by thought, and that memory is\r\nnot a remembering of actual facts, but is association, suggestion,\r\ndramatic fancy. The standard used to measure the value of the\r\nsuggestions that spring up in the mind is not congruity with fact but\r\nemotional congeniality. Do they stimulate and reinforce feeling, and fit\r\ninto the dramatic tale? Are they consonant with the prevailing mood, and\r\ncan\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_7\" id=\"Page_7\"\u003e[Pg 7]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e they be rendered into the traditional hopes and fears of the\r\ncommunity? If we are willing to take the word dreams with a certain\r\nliberality, it is hardly too much to say that man, save in his\r\noccasional times of actual work and struggle, lives in a world of\r\ndreams, rather than of facts, and a world of dreams that is organized\r\nabout desires whose success and frustration form its stuff.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eTo treat the early beliefs and traditions of mankind as if they were\r\nattempts at scientific explanation of the world, only erroneous and\r\nabsurd attempts, is thus to be guilty of a great mistake. The material\r\nout of which philosophy finally emerges is irrelevant to science and to\r\nexplanation. It is figurative, symbolic of fears and hopes, made of\r\nimaginations and suggestions, not significant of a world of objective\r\nfact intellectually confronted. It is poetry and drama, rather than\r\nscience, and is apart from scientific truth and falsity, rationality or\r\nabsurdity of fact in the same way in which poetry is independent of\r\nthese things.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis original material has, however, to pass through at least two stages\r\nbefore it becomes philosophy proper. One is the stage in which stories\r\nand legends and their accompanying dramatizations are consolidated. At\r\nfirst the emotionalized records of experiences are largely casual and\r\ntransitory. Events that excite the emotions of an individual are seized\r\nupon and lived over in tale\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_8\" id=\"Page_8\"\u003e[Pg 8]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e and pantomime. But some experiences are so\r\nfrequent and recurrent that they concern the group as a whole. They are\r\nsocially generalized. The piecemeal adventure of the single individual\r\nis built out till it becomes representative and typical of the emotional\r\nlife of the tribe. Certain incidents affect the weal and woe of the\r\ngroup in its entirety and thereby get an exceptional emphasis and\r\nelevation. A certain texture of tradition is built up; the story becomes\r\na social heritage and possession; the pantomime develops into the stated\r\nrite. Tradition thus formed becomes a kind of norm to which individual\r\nfancy and suggestion conform. An abiding framework of imagination is\r\nconstructed. A communal way of conceiving life grows up into which\r\nindividuals are inducted by education. Both unconsciously and by\r\ndefinite social requirement individual memories are assimilated to group\r\nmemory or tradition, and individual fancies are accommodated to the body\r\nof beliefs characteristic of a community. Poetry becomes fixated and\r\nsystematized. The story becomes a social norm. The original drama which\r\nre-enacts an emotionally important experience is institutionalized into\r\na cult. Suggestions previously free are hardened into doctrines.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe systematic and obligatory nature of such doctrines is hastened and\r\nconfirmed through conquests and political consolidation. As the area of\r\na government is extended, there is a definite motive for systematizing\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_9\" id=\"Page_9\"\u003e[Pg 9]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nand unifying beliefs once free and floating. Aside from natural\r\naccommodation and assimilation springing from the fact of intercourse\r\nand the needs of common understanding, there is often political\r\nnecessity which leads the ruler to centralize traditions and beliefs in\r\norder to extend and strengthen his prestige and authority. Judea,\r\nGreece, Rome, and I presume all other countries having a long history,\r\npresent records of a continual working over of earlier local rites and\r\ndoctrines in the interests of a wider social unity and a more extensive\r\npolitical power. I shall ask you to assume with me that in this way the\r\nlarger cosmogonies and cosmologies of the race as well as the larger\r\nethical traditions have arisen. Whether this is literally so or not, it\r\nis not necessary to inquire, much less to demonstrate. It is enough for\r\nour purposes that under social influences there took place a fixing and\r\norganizing of doctrines and cults which gave general traits to the\r\nimagination and general rules to conduct, and that such a consolidation\r\nwas a necessary antecedent to the formation of any philosophy as we\r\nunderstand that term.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough a necessary antecedent, this organization and generalization of\r\nideas and principles of belief is not the sole and sufficient generator\r\nof philosophy. There is still lacking the motive for logical system and\r\nintellectual proof. This we may suppose to be furnished by the need of\r\nreconciling the moral rules and ideals em\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_10\" id=\"Page_10\"\u003e[Pg 10]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003ebodied in the traditional code\r\nwith the matter of fact positivistic knowledge which gradually grows up.\r\nFor man can never be wholly the creature of suggestion and fancy. The\r\nrequirements of continued existence make indispensable some attention to\r\nthe actual facts of the world. Although it is surprising how little\r\ncheck the environment actually puts upon the formation of ideas, since\r\nno notions are too absurd not to have been accepted by some people, yet\r\nthe environment does enforce a certain minimum of correctness under\r\npenalty of extinction. That certain things are foods, that they are to\r\nbe found in certain places, that water drowns, fire burns, that sharp\r\npoints penetrate and cut, that heavy things fall unless supported, that\r\nthere is a certain regularity in the changes of day and night and the\r\nalternation of hot and cold, wet and dry:\u0026mdash;such prosaic facts force\r\nthemselves upon even primitive attention. Some of them are so obvious\r\nand so important that they have next to no fanciful context. Auguste\r\nComte says somewhere that he knows of no savage people who had a God of\r\nweight although every other natural quality or force may have been\r\ndeified. Gradually there grows up a body of homely generalizations\r\npreserving and transmitting the wisdom of the race about the observed\r\nfacts and sequences of nature. This knowledge is especially connected\r\nwith industries, arts and crafts where observation of materials and\r\nprocesses\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_11\" id=\"Page_11\"\u003e[Pg 11]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is required for successful action, and where action is so\r\ncontinuous and regular that spasmodic magic will not suffice.\r\nExtravagantly fantastic notions are eliminated because they are brought\r\ninto juxtaposition with what actually happens.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe sailor is more likely to be given to what we now term superstitions\r\nthan say the weaver, because his activity is more at the mercy of sudden\r\nchange and unforeseen occurrence. But even the sailor while he may\r\nregard the wind as the uncontrollable expression of the caprice of a\r\ngreat spirit, will still have to become acquainted with some purely\r\nmechanical principles of adjustment of boat, sails and oar to the wind.\r\nFire may be conceived as a supernatural dragon because some time or\r\nother a swift, bright and devouring flame called before the mind\u0027s eye\r\nthe quick-moving and dangerous serpent. But the housewife who tends the\r\nfire and the pots wherein food cooks will still be compelled to observe\r\ncertain mechanical facts of draft and replenishment, and passage from\r\nwood to ash. Still more will the worker in metals accumulate verifiable\r\ndetails about the conditions and consequences of the operation of heat.\r\nHe may retain for special and ceremonial occasions traditional beliefs,\r\nbut everyday familiar use will expel these conceptions for the greater\r\npart of the time, when fire will be to him of uniform and prosaic\r\nbehavior, controllable by practical relations of cause and effect.\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_12\" id=\"Page_12\"\u003e[Pg 12]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e As\r\nthe arts and crafts develop and become more elaborate, the body of\r\npositive and tested knowledge enlarges, and the sequences observed\r\nbecome more complex and of greater scope. Technologies of this kind give\r\nthat common-sense knowledge of nature out of which science takes its\r\norigin. They provide not merely a collection of positive facts, but they\r\ngive expertness in dealing with materials and tools, and promote the\r\ndevelopment of the experimental habit of mind, as soon as an art can be\r\ntaken away from the rule of sheer custom.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eFor a long time the imaginative body of beliefs closely connected with\r\nthe moral habits of a community group and with its emotional indulgences\r\nand consolations persists side by side with the growing body of matter\r\nof fact knowledge. Wherever possible they are interlaced. At other\r\npoints, their inconsistencies forbid their interweaving, but the two\r\nthings are kept apart as if in different compartments. Since one is\r\nmerely super-imposed upon the other their incompatibility is not felt,\r\nand there is no need of reconciliation. In most cases, the two kinds of\r\nmental products are kept apart because they become the possession of\r\nseparate social classes. The religious and poetic beliefs having\r\nacquired a definite social and political value and function are in the\r\nkeeping of a higher class directly associated with the ruling elements\r\nin the society. The workers and craftsmen who possess the prosaic matter\r\nof fact knowledge\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_13\" id=\"Page_13\"\u003e[Pg 13]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e are likely to occupy a low social status, and their\r\nkind of knowledge is affected by the social disesteem entertained for\r\nthe manual worker who engages in activities useful to the body. It\r\ndoubtless was this fact in Greece which in spite of the keenness of\r\nobservation, the extraordinary power of logical reasoning and the great\r\nfreedom of speculation attained by the Athenian, postponed the general\r\nand systematic employment of the experimental method. Since the\r\nindustrial craftsman was only just above the slave in social rank, his\r\ntype of knowledge and the method upon which it depended lacked prestige\r\nand authority.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, the time came when matter of fact knowledge increased to\r\nsuch bulk and scope that it came into conflict with not merely the\r\ndetail but with the spirit and temper of traditional and imaginative\r\nbeliefs. Without going into the vexed question of how and why, there is\r\nno doubt that this is just what happened in what we term the sophistic\r\nmovement in Greece, within which originated philosophy proper in the\r\nsense in which the western world understands that term. The fact that\r\nthe sophists had a bad name given them by Plato and Aristotle, a name\r\nthey have never been able to shake off, is evidence that with the\r\nsophists the strife between the two types of belief was the emphatic\r\nthing, and that the conflict had a disconcerting effect upon the\r\ntraditional system of religious beliefs and the\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_14\" id=\"Page_14\"\u003e[Pg 14]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e moral code of conduct\r\nbound up with it. Although Socrates was doubtless sincerely interested\r\nin the reconciliation of the two sides, yet the fact that he approached\r\nthe matter from the side of matter of fact method, giving its canons and\r\ncriteria primacy, was enough to bring him to the condemnation of death\r\nas a contemner of the gods and a corrupter of youth.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe fate of Socrates and the ill-fame of the sophists may be used to\r\nsuggest some of the striking contrasts between traditional emotionalized\r\nbelief on one hand and prosaic matter of fact knowledge on the\r\nother:\u0026mdash;the purpose of the comparison being to bring out the point that\r\nwhile all the advantages of what we call science were on the side of the\r\nlatter, the advantages of social esteem and authority, and of intimate\r\ncontact with what gives life its deeper lying values were on the side of\r\ntraditional belief. To all appearances, the specific and verified\r\nknowledge of the environment had only a limited and technical scope. It\r\nhad to do with the arts, and the purpose and good of the artisan after\r\nall did not extend very far. They were subordinate and almost servile.\r\nWho would put the art of the shoemaker on the same plane as the art of\r\nruling the state? Who would put even the higher art of the physician in\r\nhealing the body, upon the level of the art of the priest in healing the\r\nsoul? Thus Plato constantly\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_15\" id=\"Page_15\"\u003e[Pg 15]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e draws the contrast in his dialogues. The\r\nshoemaker is a judge of a good pair of shoes, but he is no judge at all\r\nof the more important question whether and when it is good to wear\r\nshoes; the physician is a good judge of health, but whether it is a good\r\nthing or not to be well or better to die, he knows not. While the\r\nartisan is expert as long as purely limited technical questions arise,\r\nhe is helpless when it comes to the only really important questions, the\r\nmoral questions as to values. Consequently, his type of knowledge is\r\ninherently inferior and needs to be controlled by a higher kind of\r\nknowledge which will reveal ultimate ends and purposes, and thus put and\r\nkeep technical and mechanical knowledge in its proper place. Moreover,\r\nin Plato\u0027s pages we find, because of Plato\u0027s adequate dramatic sense, a\r\nlively depicting of the impact in particular men of the conflict between\r\ntradition and the new claims of purely intellectual knowledge. The\r\nconservative is shocked beyond measure at the idea of teaching the\r\nmilitary art by abstract rules, by science. One does not just fight, one\r\nfights for one\u0027s country. Abstract science cannot convey love and\r\nloyalty, nor can it be a substitute, even upon the more technical side,\r\nfor those ways and means of fighting in which devotion to the country\r\nhas been traditionally embodied.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe way to learn the fighting art is through association with those who\r\nhave themselves learned to defend\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_16\" id=\"Page_16\"\u003e[Pg 16]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e the country, by becoming saturated\r\nwith its ideals and customs; by becoming in short a practical adept in\r\nthe Greek tradition as to fighting. To attempt to derive abstract rules\r\nfrom a comparison of native ways of fighting with the enemies\u0027 ways is\r\nto begin to go over to the enemies\u0027 traditions and gods: it is to begin\r\nto be false to one\u0027s own country.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSuch a point of view vividly realized enables us to appreciate the\r\nantagonism aroused by the positivistic point of view when it came into\r\nconflict with the traditional. The latter was deeply rooted in social\r\nhabits and loyalties; it was surcharged with the moral aims for which\r\nmen lived and the moral rules by which they lived. Hence it was as basic\r\nand as comprehensive as life itself, and palpitated with the warm\r\nglowing colors of the community life in which men realized their own\r\nbeing. In contrast, the positivistic knowledge was concerned with merely\r\nphysical utilities, and lacked the ardent associations of belief\r\nhallowed by sacrifices of ancestors and worship of contemporaries.\r\nBecause of its limited and concrete character it was dry, hard, cold.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eYet the more acute and active minds, like that of Plato himself, could\r\nno longer be content to accept, along with the conservative citizen of\r\nthe time, the old beliefs in the old way. The growth of positive\r\nknowledge and of the critical, inquiring spirit under\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_17\" id=\"Page_17\"\u003e[Pg 17]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003emined these in\r\ntheir old form. The advantages in definiteness, in accuracy, in\r\nverifiability were all on the side of the new knowledge. Tradition was\r\nnoble in aim and scope, but uncertain in foundation. The unquestioned\r\nlife, said Socrates, was not one fit to be lived by man, who is a\r\nquestioning being because he is a rational being. Hence he must search\r\nout the reason of things, and not accept them from custom and political\r\nauthority. What was to be done? Develop a method of rational\r\ninvestigation and proof which should place the essential elements of\r\ntraditional belief upon an unshakable basis; develop a method of thought\r\nand knowledge which while purifying tradition should preserve its moral\r\nand social values unimpaired; nay, by purifying them, add to their power\r\nand authority. To put it in a word, that which had rested upon custom\r\nwas to be restored, resting no longer upon the habits of the past, but\r\nupon the very metaphysics of Being and the Universe. Metaphysics is a\r\nsubstitute for custom as the source and guarantor of higher moral and\r\nsocial values\u0026mdash;that is the leading theme of the classic philosophy of\r\nEurope, as evolved by Plato and Aristotle\u0026mdash;a philosophy, let us always\r\nrecall, renewed and restated by the Christian philosophy of Medieval\r\nEurope.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eOut of this situation emerged, if I mistake not, the entire tradition\r\nregarding the function and office of\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_18\" id=\"Page_18\"\u003e[Pg 18]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e philosophy which till very\r\nrecently has controlled the systematic and constructive philosophies of\r\nthe western world. If I am right in my main thesis that the origin of\r\nphilosophy lay in an attempt to reconcile the two different types of\r\nmental product, then the key is in our hands as to the main traits of\r\nsubsequent philosophy so far as that was not of a negative and heterodox\r\nkind. In the first place, philosophy did not develop in an unbiased way\r\nfrom an open and unprejudiced origin. It had its task cut out for it\r\nfrom the start. It had a mission to perform, and it was sworn in advance\r\nto that mission. It had to extract the essential moral kernel out of the\r\nthreatened traditional beliefs of the past. So far so good; the work was\r\ncritical and in the interests of the only true conservatism\u0026mdash;that which\r\nwill conserve and not waste the values wrought out by humanity. But it\r\nwas also precommitted to extracting this moral essence in a spirit\r\ncongenial to the spirit of past beliefs. The association with\r\nimagination and with social authority was too intimate to be deeply\r\ndisturbed. It was not possible to conceive of the content of social\r\ninstitutions in any form radically different from that in which they had\r\nexisted in the past. It became the work of philosophy to justify on\r\nrational grounds the spirit, though not the form, of accepted beliefs\r\nand traditional customs.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe resulting philosophy seemed radical enough and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_19\" id=\"Page_19\"\u003e[Pg 19]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e even dangerous to\r\nthe average Athenian because of the difference of form and method. In\r\nthe sense of pruning away excrescences and eliminating factors which to\r\nthe average citizen were all one with the basic beliefs, it was radical.\r\nBut looked at in the perspective of history and in contrast with\r\ndifferent types of thought which developed later in different social\r\nenvironments, it is now easy to see how profoundly, after all, Plato and\r\nAristotle reflected the meaning of Greek tradition and habit, so that\r\ntheir writings remain, with the writings of the great dramatists, the\r\nbest introduction of a student into the innermost ideals and aspirations\r\nof distinctively Greek life. Without Greek religion, Greek art, Greek\r\ncivic life, their philosophy would have been impossible; while the\r\neffect of that science upon which the philosophers most prided\r\nthemselves turns out to have been superficial and negligible. This\r\napologetic spirit of philosophy is even more apparent when Medieval\r\nChristianity about the twelfth century sought for a systematic rational\r\npresentation of itself and made use of classic philosophy, especially\r\nthat of Aristotle, to justify itself to reason. A not unsimilar\r\noccurrence characterizes the chief philosophic systems of Germany in the\r\nearly nineteenth century, when Hegel assumed the task of justifying in\r\nthe name of rational idealism the doctrines and institutions which were\r\nmenaced by the new spirit of science and popular government. The\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_20\" id=\"Page_20\"\u003e[Pg 20]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e result\r\nhas been that the great systems have not been free from party spirit\r\nexercised in behalf of preconceived beliefs. Since they have at the same\r\ntime professed complete intellectual independence and rationality, the\r\nresult has been too often to impart to philosophy an element of\r\ninsincerity, all the more insidious because wholly unconscious on the\r\npart of those who sustained philosophy.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAnd this brings us to a second trait of philosophy springing from its\r\norigin. Since it aimed at a rational justification of things that had\r\nbeen previously accepted because of their emotional congeniality and\r\nsocial prestige, it had to make much of the apparatus of reason and\r\nproof. Because of the lack of intrinsic rationality in the matters with\r\nwhich it dealt, it leaned over backward, so to speak, in parade of\r\nlogical form. In dealing with matters of fact, simpler and rougher ways\r\nof demonstration may be resorted to. It is enough, so to say, to produce\r\nthe fact in question and point to it\u0026mdash;the fundamental form of all\r\ndemonstration. But when it comes to convincing men of the truth of\r\ndoctrines which are no longer to be accepted upon the say-so of custom\r\nand social authority, but which also are not capable of empirical\r\nverification, there is no recourse save to magnify the signs of rigorous\r\nthought and rigid demonstration. Thus arises that appearance of abstract\r\ndefinition and ultra-scientific argumentation\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_21\" id=\"Page_21\"\u003e[Pg 21]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e which repels so many from\r\nphilosophy but which has been one of its chief attractions to its\r\ndevotees.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAt the worst, this has reduced philosophy to a show of elaborate\r\nterminology, a hair-splitting logic, and a fictitious devotion to the\r\nmere external forms of comprehensive and minute demonstration. Even at\r\nthe best, it has tended to produce an overdeveloped attachment to system\r\nfor its own sake, and an over-pretentious claim to certainty. Bishop\r\nButler declared that probability is the guide of life; but few\r\nphilosophers have been courageous enough to avow that philosophy can be\r\nsatisfied with anything that is merely probable. The customs dictated by\r\ntradition and desire had claimed finality and immutability. They had\r\nclaimed to give certain and unvarying laws of conduct. Very early in its\r\nhistory philosophy made pretension to a similar conclusiveness, and\r\nsomething of this temper has clung to classic philosophies ever since.\r\nThey have insisted that they were more scientific than the\r\nsciences\u0026mdash;that, indeed, philosophy was necessary because after all the\r\nspecial sciences fail in attaining final and complete truth. There have\r\nbeen a few dissenters who have ventured to assert, as did William James,\r\nthat \"philosophy is vision\" and that its chief function is to free men\u0027s\r\nminds from bias and prejudice and to enlarge their perceptions of the\r\nworld about them. But in the main philosophy has set up much more\r\nambitious pretensions.\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_22\" id=\"Page_22\"\u003e[Pg 22]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e To say frankly that philosophy can proffer\r\nnothing but hypotheses, and that these hypotheses are of value only as\r\nthey render men\u0027s minds more sensitive to life about them, would seem\r\nlike a negation of philosophy itself.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn the third place, the body of beliefs dictated by desire and\r\nimagination and developed under the influence of communal authority into\r\nan authoritative tradition, was pervasive and comprehensive. It was, so\r\nto speak, omnipresent in all the details of the group life. Its pressure\r\nwas unremitting and its influence universal. It was then probably\r\ninevitable that the rival principle, reflective thought, should aim at a\r\nsimilar universality and comprehensiveness. It would be as inclusive and\r\nfar-reaching metaphysically as tradition had been socially. Now there\r\nwas just one way in which this pretension could be accomplished in\r\nconjunction with a claim of complete logical system and certainty.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAll philosophies of the classic type have made a fixed and fundamental\r\ndistinction between two realms of existence. One of these corresponds to\r\nthe religious and supernatural world of popular tradition, which in its\r\nmetaphysical rendering became the world of highest and ultimate reality.\r\nSince the final source and sanction of all important truths and rules of\r\nconduct in community life had been found in superior and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_23\" id=\"Page_23\"\u003e[Pg 23]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e unquestioned\r\nreligious beliefs, so the absolute and supreme reality of philosophy\r\nafforded the only sure guaranty of truth about empirical matters, and\r\nthe sole rational guide to proper social institutions and individual\r\nbehavior. Over against this absolute and noumenal reality which could be\r\napprehended only by the systematic discipline of philosophy itself stood\r\nthe ordinary empirical, relatively real, phenomenal world of everyday\r\nexperience. It was with this world that the practical affairs and\r\nutilities of men were connected. It was to this imperfect and perishing\r\nworld that matter of fact, positivistic science referred.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis is the trait which, in my opinion, has affected most deeply the\r\nclassic notion about the nature of philosophy. Philosophy has arrogated\r\nto itself the office of demonstrating the existence of a transcendent,\r\nabsolute or inner reality and of revealing to man the nature and\r\nfeatures of this ultimate and higher reality. It has therefore claimed\r\nthat it was in possession of a higher organ of knowledge than is\r\nemployed by positive science and ordinary practical experience, and that\r\nit is marked by a superior dignity and importance\u0026mdash;a claim which is\r\nundeniable \u003ci\u003eif\u003c/i\u003e philosophy leads man to proof and intuition of a Reality\r\nbeyond that open to day-by-day life and the special sciences.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis claim has, of course, been denied by various\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_24\" id=\"Page_24\"\u003e[Pg 24]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e philosophers from\r\ntime to time. But for the most part these denials have been agnostic and\r\nsceptical. They have contented themselves with asserting that absolute\r\nand ultimate reality is beyond human ken. But they have not ventured to\r\ndeny that such Reality would be the appropriate sphere for the exercise\r\nof philosophic knowledge provided only it were within the reach of human\r\nintelligence. Only comparatively recently has another conception of the\r\nproper office of philosophy arisen. This course of lectures will be\r\ndevoted to setting forth this different conception of philosophy in some\r\nof its main contrasts to what this lecture has termed the classic\r\nconception. At this point, it can be referred to only by anticipation\r\nand in cursory fashion. It is implied in the account which has been\r\ngiven of the origin of philosophy out of the background of an\r\nauthoritative tradition; a tradition originally dictated by man\u0027s\r\nimagination working under the influence of love and hate and in the\r\ninterest of emotional excitement and satisfaction. Common frankness\r\nrequires that it be stated that this account of the origin of\r\nphilosophies claiming to deal with absolute Being in a systematic way\r\nhas been given with malice prepense. It seems to me that this genetic\r\nmethod of approach is a more effective way of undermining this type of\r\nphilosophic theorizing than any attempt at logical refutation could be.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_25\" id=\"Page_25\"\u003e[Pg 25]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIf this lecture succeeds in leaving in your minds as a reasonable\r\nhypothesis the idea that philosophy originated not out of intellectual\r\nmaterial, but out of social and emotional material, it will also succeed\r\nin leaving with you a changed attitude toward traditional philosophies.\r\nThey will be viewed from a new angle and placed in a new light. New\r\nquestions about them will be aroused and new standards for judging them\r\nwill be suggested.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIf any one will commence without mental reservations to study the\r\nhistory of philosophy not as an isolated thing but as a chapter in the\r\ndevelopment of civilization and culture; if one will connect the story\r\nof philosophy with a study of anthropology, primitive life, the history\r\nof religion, literature and social institutions, it is confidently\r\nasserted that he will reach his own independent judgment as to the worth\r\nof the account which has been presented today. Considered in this way,\r\nthe history of philosophy will take on a new significance. What is lost\r\nfrom the standpoint of would-be science is regained from the standpoint\r\nof humanity. Instead of the disputes of rivals about the nature of\r\nreality, we have the scene of human clash of social purpose and\r\naspirations. Instead of impossible attempts to transcend experience, we\r\nhave the significant record of the efforts of men to formulate the\r\nthings of experience to which they are most deeply and passionately\r\nattached.\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_26\" id=\"Page_26\"\u003e[Pg 26]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e Instead of impersonal and purely speculative endeavors to\r\ncontemplate as remote beholders the nature of absolute\r\nthings-in-themselves, we have a living picture of the choice of\r\nthoughtful men about what they would have life to be, and to what ends\r\nthey would have men shape their intelligent activities.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAny one of you who arrives at such a view of past philosophy will of\r\nnecessity be led to entertain a quite definite conception of the scope\r\nand aim of future philosophizing. He will inevitably be committed to the\r\nnotion that what philosophy has been unconsciously, without knowing or\r\nintending it, and, so to speak, under cover, it must henceforth be\r\nopenly and deliberately. When it is acknowledged that under disguise of\r\ndealing with ultimate reality, philosophy has been occupied with the\r\nprecious values embedded in social traditions, that it has sprung from a\r\nclash of social ends and from a conflict of inherited institutions with\r\nincompatible contemporary tendencies, it will be seen that the task of\r\nfuture philosophy is to clarify men\u0027s ideas as to the social and moral\r\nstrifes of their own day. Its aim is to become so far as is humanly\r\npossible an organ for dealing with these conflicts. That which may be\r\npretentiously unreal when it is formulated in metaphysical distinctions\r\nbecomes intensely significant when connected with the drama of the\r\nstruggle of social beliefs and ideals. Philosophy which surrenders its\r\nsomewhat\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_27\" id=\"Page_27\"\u003e[Pg 27]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e barren monopoly of dealings with Ultimate and Absolute Reality\r\nwill find a compensation in enlightening the moral forces which move\r\nmankind and in contributing to the aspirations of men to attain to a\r\nmore ordered and intelligent happiness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003chr class=\"chap\" /\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_28\" id=\"Page_28\"\u003e[Pg 28]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"CHAPTER_II\" id=\"CHAPTER_II\"\u003eCHAPTER II\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003eSOME HISTORICAL FACTORS IN PHILOSOPHICAL RECONSTRUCTION\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eFrancis Bacon of the Elizabethan age is the great forerunner of the\r\nspirit of modern life. Though slight in accomplishment, as a prophet of\r\nnew tendencies he is an outstanding figure of the world\u0027s intellectual\r\nlife. Like many another prophet he suffers from confused intermingling\r\nof old and new. What is most significant in him has been rendered more\r\nor less familiar by the later course of events. But page after page is\r\nfilled with matter which belongs to the past from which Bacon thought he\r\nhad escaped. Caught between these two sources of easy disparagement,\r\nBacon hardly receives his due as the real founder of modern thought,\r\nwhile he is praised for merits which scarcely belong to him, such as an\r\nalleged authorship of the specific methods of induction pursued by\r\nscience. What makes Bacon memorable is that breezes blowing from a new\r\nworld caught and filled his sails and stirred him to adventure in new\r\nseas. He never himself discovered the land of promise, but he proclaimed\r\nthe new goal and by faith he descried its features from afar.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_29\" id=\"Page_29\"\u003e[Pg 29]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe main traits of his thought put before our mind the larger features\r\nof a new spirit which was at work in causing intellectual\r\nreconstruction. They may suggest the social and historical forces out of\r\nwhich the new spirit was born. The best known aphorism of Bacon is that\r\nKnowledge is Power. Judged by this pragmatic criterion, he condemned the\r\ngreat body of learning then extant as \u003ci\u003enot\u003c/i\u003e-knowledge, as pseudo- and\r\npretentious-knowledge. For it did not give power. It was otiose, not\r\noperative. In his most extensive discussion he classified the learning\r\nof his day under three heads, delicate, fantastic and contentious. Under\r\ndelicate learning, he included the literary learning which through the\r\ninfluence of the revival of ancient languages and literatures occupied\r\nso important a place in the intellectual life of the Renaissance.\r\nBacon\u0027s condemnation is the more effective because he himself was a\r\nmaster of the classics and of all the graces and refinements which this\r\nliterary study was intended to convey. In substance he anticipated most\r\nof the attacks which educational reformers since his time have made upon\r\none-sided literary culture. It contributed not to power but to ornament\r\nand decoration. It was ostentatious and luxurious. By fantastic learning\r\nhe meant the quasi-magical science that was so rife all over Europe in\r\nthe sixteenth century\u0026mdash;wild developments of alchemy, astrology, etc.\r\nUpon this he poured his greatest vials\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_30\" id=\"Page_30\"\u003e[Pg 30]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e of wrath because the corruption\r\nof the good is the worst of evils. Delicate learning was idle and vain,\r\nbut fantastic learning aped the form of true knowledge. It laid hold of\r\nthe true principle and aim of knowledge\u0026mdash;control of natural forces. But\r\nit neglected the conditions and methods by which alone such knowledge\r\ncould be obtained, and thus deliberately led men astray.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eFor our purposes, however, what he says about contentious learning is\r\nthe most important. For by this, he means the traditional science which\r\nhad come down, in scanty and distorted measure to be sure, from\r\nantiquity through scholasticism. It is called contentious both because\r\nof the logical method used and the end to which it was put. In a certain\r\nsense it aimed at power, but power over other men in the interest of\r\nsome class or sect or person, not power over natural forces in the\r\ncommon interest of all. Bacon\u0027s conviction of the quarrelsome,\r\nself-displaying character of the scholarship which had come down from\r\nantiquity was of course not so much due to Greek science itself as to\r\nthe degenerate heritage of scholasticism in the fourteenth century, when\r\nphilosophy had fallen into the hands of disputatious theologians, full\r\nof hair-splitting argumentativeness and quirks and tricks by which to\r\nwin victory over somebody else.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eBut Bacon also brought his charge against the Aristotelian method\r\nitself. In its rigorous forms it\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_31\" id=\"Page_31\"\u003e[Pg 31]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e aimed at demonstration, and in its\r\nmilder forms at persuasion. But both demonstration and persuasion aim at\r\nconquest of mind rather than of nature. Moreover they both assume that\r\nsome one is already in possession of a truth or a belief, and that the\r\nonly problem is to convince some one else, or to teach. In contrast, his\r\nnew method had an exceedingly slight opinion of the amount of truth\r\nalready existent, and a lively sense of the extent and importance of\r\ntruths still to be attained. It would be a logic of discovery, not a\r\nlogic of argumentation, proof and persuasion. To Bacon, the old logic\r\neven at its best was a logic for teaching the already known, and\r\nteaching meant indoctrination, discipling. It was an axiom of Aristotle\r\nthat only that which was already known could be learned, that growth in\r\nknowledge consisted simply in bringing together a universal truth of\r\nreason and a particular truth of sense which had previously been noted\r\nseparately. In any case, learning meant \u003ci\u003egrowth\u003c/i\u003e of knowledge, and\r\ngrowth belongs in the region of becoming, change, and hence is inferior\r\nto \u003ci\u003epossession\u003c/i\u003e of knowledge in the syllogistic self-revolving\r\nmanipulation of what was already known\u0026mdash;demonstration.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast with this point of view, Bacon eloquently proclaimed the\r\nsuperiority of discovery of new facts and truths to demonstration of the\r\nold. Now there is only one road to discovery, and that is penetrating\r\nin\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_32\" id=\"Page_32\"\u003e[Pg 32]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003equiry into the secrets of nature. Scientific principles and laws do\r\nnot lie on the surface of nature. They are hidden, and must be wrested\r\nfrom nature by an active and elaborate technique of inquiry. Neither\r\nlogical reasoning nor the passive accumulation of any number of\r\nobservations\u0026mdash;which the ancients called experience\u0026mdash;suffices to lay hold\r\nof them. Active experimentation must force the apparent facts of nature\r\ninto forms different to those in which they familiarly present\r\nthemselves; and thus make them tell the truth about themselves, as\r\ntorture may compel an unwilling witness to reveal what he has been\r\nconcealing. Pure reasoning as a means of arriving at truth is like the\r\nspider who spins a web out of himself. The web is orderly and elaborate,\r\nbut it is only a trap. The passive accumulation of experiences\u0026mdash;the\r\ntraditional empirical method\u0026mdash;is like the ant who busily runs about and\r\ncollects and piles up heaps of raw materials. True method, that which\r\nBacon would usher in, is comparable to the operations of the bee who,\r\nlike the ant, collects material from the external world, but unlike that\r\nindustrious creature attacks and modifies the collected stuff in order\r\nto make it yield its hidden treasure.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAlong with this contrast between subjugation of nature and subjection of\r\nother minds and the elevation of a method of discovery above a method of\r\ndemonstration, went Bacon\u0027s sense of progress as the aim and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_33\" id=\"Page_33\"\u003e[Pg 33]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e test of\r\ngenuine knowledge. According to his criticisms, the classic logic, even\r\nin its Aristotelian form, inevitably played into the hands of inert\r\nconservatism. For in accustoming the mind to think of truth as already\r\nknown, it habituated men to fall back on the intellectual attainments of\r\nthe past, and to accept them without critical scrutiny. Not merely the\r\nmedieval but the renaissance mind tended to look back to antiquity as a\r\nGolden Age of Knowledge, the former relying upon sacred scriptures, the\r\nlatter upon secular literatures. And while this attitude could not\r\nfairly be charged up against the classic logic, yet Bacon felt, and with\r\njustice, that any logic which identified the technique of knowing with\r\ndemonstration of truths already possessed by the mind, blunts the spirit\r\nof investigation and confines the mind within the circle of traditional\r\nlearning.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSuch a logic could not avoid having for its salient features definition\r\nof what is already known (or thought to be known), and its\r\nsystematization according to recognized canons of orthodoxy. A logic of\r\ndiscovery on the other hand looks to the future. Received truth it\r\nregards critically as something to be tested by new experiences rather\r\nthan as something to be dogmatically taught and obediently received. Its\r\nchief interest in even the most carefully tested ready-made knowledge is\r\nthe use which may be made of it in further inquiries\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_34\" id=\"Page_34\"\u003e[Pg 34]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e and discoveries.\r\nOld truth has its chief value in assisting the detection of new truth.\r\nBacon\u0027s own appreciation of the nature of induction was highly\r\ndefective. But his acute sense that science means invasion of the\r\nunknown, rather than repetition in logical form of the already known,\r\nmakes him nevertheless the father of induction. Endless and persistent\r\nuncovering of facts and principles not known\u0026mdash;such is the true spirit of\r\ninduction. Continued progress in knowledge is the only sure way of\r\nprotecting old knowledge from degeneration into dogmatic doctrines\r\nreceived on authority, or from imperceptible decay into superstition and\r\nold wives\u0027 tales.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eEver-renewed progress is to Bacon the test as well as the aim of genuine\r\nlogic. Where, Bacon constantly demands, where are the works, the fruits,\r\nof the older logic? What has it done to ameliorate the evils of life, to\r\nrectify defects, to improve conditions? Where are the inventions that\r\njustify its claim to be in possession of truth? Beyond the victory of\r\nman over man in law courts, diplomacy and political administration, they\r\nare nil. One had to turn from admired \"sciences\" to despised arts to\r\nfind works, fruits, consequences of value to human kind through power\r\nover natural forces. And progress in the arts was as yet intermittent,\r\nfitful, accidental. A true logic or technique of inquiry would make\r\nadvance in the industrial, agricultural and medi\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_35\" id=\"Page_35\"\u003e[Pg 35]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003ecal arts continuous,\r\ncumulative and deliberately systematic.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIf we take into account the supposed body of ready-made knowledge upon\r\nwhich learned men rested in supine acquiescence and which they recited\r\nin parrot-like chorus, we find it consists of two parts. One of these\r\nparts is made up of the errors of our ancestors, musty with antiquity\r\nand organized into pseudo-science through the use of the classic logic.\r\nSuch \"truths\" are in fact only the systematized mistakes and prejudices\r\nof our ancestors. Many of them originated in accident; many in class\r\ninterest and bias, perpetuated by authority for this very reason\u0026mdash;a\r\nconsideration which later actuated Locke\u0027s attack upon the doctrine of\r\ninnate ideas. The other portion of accepted beliefs comes from\r\ninstinctive tendencies of the human mind that give it a dangerous bias\r\nuntil counteracted by a conscious and critical logic.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe mind of man spontaneously assumes greater simplicity, uniformity and\r\nunity among phenomena than actually exists. It follows superficial\r\nanalogies and jumps to conclusions; it overlooks the variety of details\r\nand the existence of exceptions. Thus it weaves a web of purely internal\r\norigin which it imposes upon nature. What had been termed science in the\r\npast consisted of this humanly constructed and imposed web. Men looked\r\nat the work of their own minds and thought\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_36\" id=\"Page_36\"\u003e[Pg 36]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e they were seeing realities\r\nin nature. They were worshipping, under the name of science, the idols\r\nof their own making. So-called science and philosophy consisted of these\r\n\"anticipations\" of nature. And the worst thing that could be said about\r\ntraditional logic was that instead of saving man from this natural\r\nsource of error, it had, though attributing to nature a false\r\nrationality of unity, simplicity and generality, sanctioned these\r\nsources of delusion. The office of the new logic would be to protect the\r\nmind against itself: to teach it to undergo a patient and prolonged\r\napprenticeship to fact in its infinite variety and particularity: to\r\nobey nature intellectually in order to command it practically. Such was\r\nthe significance of the new logic\u0026mdash;the new tool or organon of learning,\r\nso named in express opposition to the organon of Aristotle.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eCertain other important oppositions are implied. Aristotle thought of\r\nreason as capable of solitary communion with rational truth. The\r\ncounterpart of his celebrated saying that man is a political animal, is\r\nthat Intelligence, \u003ci\u003eNous\u003c/i\u003e, is neither animal, human nor political. It is\r\ndivinely unique and self-enclosed. To Bacon, error had been produced and\r\nperpetuated by social influences, and truth must be discovered by social\r\nagencies organized for that purpose. Left to himself, the individual can\r\ndo little or nothing; he is likely to become involved in his own\r\nself-spun web of misconceptions.\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_37\" id=\"Page_37\"\u003e[Pg 37]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e The great need is the organization of\r\nco-operative research, whereby men attack nature collectively and the\r\nwork of inquiry is carried on continuously from generation to\r\ngeneration. Bacon even aspired to the rather absurd notion of a method\r\nso perfected that differences in natural human ability might be\r\ndiscounted, and all be put on the same level in production of new facts\r\nand new truths. Yet this absurdity was only the negative side of his\r\ngreat positive prophecy of a combined and co-operative pursuit of\r\nscience such as characterizes our own day. In view of the picture he\r\ndraws in his New Atlantis of a State organized for collective inquiry,\r\nwe readily forgive him his exaggerations.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003ePower over nature was not to be individual but collective; the Empire,\r\nas he says, of Man over Nature, substituted for the Empire of Man over\r\nMan. Let us employ Bacon\u0027s own words with their variety of picturesque\r\nmetaphor: \"Men have entered into the desire of learning and knowledge,…\r\nseldom sincerely to give a true account of their gift of reason, to\r\nthe benefit and use of men, but as if they sought in knowledge a couch\r\nwhereon to rest a searching and wandering spirit; or a terrace for a\r\nwandering and variable mind to walk up and down with a fair prospect; or\r\na tower for a proud mind to raise itself upon; or a fort or commanding\r\nground for strife and contention; or a shop for profit and sale; and not\r\na rich storehouse for the glory\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_38\" id=\"Page_38\"\u003e[Pg 38]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e of the creator and the relief of man\u0027s\r\nestate.\" When William James called Pragmatism a New Name for an Old Way\r\nof Thinking, I do not know that he was thinking expressly of Francis\r\nBacon, but so far as concerns the spirit and atmosphere of the pursuit\r\nof knowledge, Bacon may be taken as the prophet of a pragmatic\r\nconception of knowledge. Many misconceptions of its spirit would be\r\navoided if his emphasis upon the social factor in both the pursuit and\r\nthe end of knowledge were carefully observed.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis somewhat over-long résumé of Bacon\u0027s ideas has not been gone into\r\nas a matter of historic retrospect. The summary is rather meant to put\r\nbefore our minds an authentic document of the new philosophy which may\r\nbring into relief the social causes of intellectual revolution. Only a\r\nsketchy account can be here attempted, but it may be of some assistance\r\neven barely to remind you of the direction of that industrial, political\r\nand religious change upon which Europe was entering.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eUpon the industrial side, it is impossible, I think, to exaggerate the\r\ninfluence of travel, exploration and new commerce which fostered a\r\nromantic sense of adventure into novelty; loosened the hold of\r\ntraditional beliefs; created a lively sense of new worlds to be\r\ninvestigated and subdued; produced new methods of manufacture, commerce,\r\nbanking and finance; and then reacted everywhere to stimulate invention,\r\nand to intro\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_39\" id=\"Page_39\"\u003e[Pg 39]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003educe positive observation and active experimentation into\r\nscience. The Crusades, the revival of the profane learning of antiquity\r\nand even more perhaps, the contact with the advanced learning of the\r\nMohammedans, the increase of commerce with Asia and Africa, the\r\nintroduction of the lens, compass and gunpowder, the finding and opening\r\nup of North and South America\u0026mdash;most significantly called The New\r\nWorld\u0026mdash;these are some of the obvious external facts. Contrast between\r\npeoples and races previously isolated is always, I think, most fruitful\r\nand influential for change when psychological and industrial changes\r\ncoincide with and reinforce each other. Sometimes people undergo\r\nemotional change, what might almost be called a metaphysical change,\r\nthrough intercourse. The inner set of the mind, especially in religious\r\nmatters, is altered. At other times, there is a lively exchange of\r\ngoods, an adoption of foreign tools and devices, an imitation of alien\r\nhabits of clothing, habitation and production of commodities. One of\r\nthese changes is, so to speak, too internal and the other too external\r\nto bring about a profound intellectual development. But when the\r\ncreation of a new mental attitude falls together with extensive material\r\nand economic changes, something significant happens.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis coincidence of two kinds of change was, I take it, characteristic\r\nof the new contacts of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Clash of\r\ncustoms and traditional\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_40\" id=\"Page_40\"\u003e[Pg 40]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e beliefs dispelled mental inertia and\r\nsluggishness; it aroused a lively curiosity as to different and new\r\nideas. The actual adventure of travel and exploration purged the mind of\r\nfear of the strange and unknown: as new territories geographically and\r\ncommercially speaking were opened up, the mind was opened up. New\r\ncontacts promoted the desire for still more contacts; the appetite for\r\nnovelty and discovery grew by what it fed upon. Conservative adherence\r\nto old beliefs and methods underwent a steady attrition with every new\r\nvoyage into new parts and every new report of foreign ways. The mind\r\nbecame used to exploration and discovery. It found a delight and\r\ninterest in the revelations of the novel and the unusual which it no\r\nlonger took in what was old and customary. Moreover, the very act of\r\nexploration, of expedition, the process of enterprising adventure into\r\nthe remote, yielded a peculiar joy and thrill.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis psychological change was essential to the birth of the new point of\r\nview in science and philosophy. Yet alone it could hardly have produced\r\nthe new method of knowing. But positive changes in the habits and\r\npurposes of life gave objective conformation and support to the mental\r\nchange. They also determined the channels in which the new spirit found\r\nexercise. Newfound wealth, the gold from the Americas and new articles\r\nof consumption and enjoyment, tended to wean men\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_41\" id=\"Page_41\"\u003e[Pg 41]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e from preoccupation\r\nwith the metaphysical and theological, and to turn their minds with\r\nnewly awakened interest to the joys of nature and this life. New\r\nmaterial resources and new markets in America and India undermined the\r\nold dependence upon household and manual production for a local and\r\nlimited market, and generated quantitative, large scale production by\r\nmeans of steam for foreign and expanding markets. Capitalism, rapid\r\ntransit, and production for exchange against money and for profit,\r\ninstead of against goods and for consumption, followed.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis cursory and superficial reminder of vast and complicated events may\r\nsuggest the mutual interdependence of the scientific revolution and the\r\nindustrial revolution. Upon the one hand, modern industry is so much\r\napplied science. No amount of desire to make money, or to enjoy new\r\ncommodities, no amount of mere practical energy and enterprise, would\r\nhave effected the economic transformation of the last few centuries and\r\ngenerations. Improvements in mathematical, physical, chemical and\r\nbiological science were prerequisites. Business men through engineers of\r\ndifferent sorts, have laid hold of the new insights gained by scientific\r\nmen into the hidden energies of nature, and have turned them to account.\r\nThe modern mine, factory, railway, steamship, telegraph, all of the\r\nappliances and equipment of production, and transportation, express\r\nscienti\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_42\" id=\"Page_42\"\u003e[Pg 42]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003efic knowledge. They would continue unimpaired even if the\r\nordinary pecuniary accompaniments of economic activity were radically\r\naltered. In short, through the intermediary of invention, Bacon\u0027s\r\nwatchword that knowledge is power and his dream of continuous empire\r\nover natural forces by means of natural science have been actualized.\r\nThe industrial revolution by steam and electricity is the reply to\r\nBacon\u0027s prophecy.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, it is equally true that the needs of modern industry\r\nhave been tremendous stimuli to scientific investigation. The demands of\r\nprogressive production and transportation have set new problems to\r\ninquiry; the processes used in industry have suggested new experimental\r\nappliances and operations in science; the wealth rolled up in business\r\nhas to some extent been diverted to endowment of research. The\r\nuninterrupted and pervasive interaction of scientific discovery and\r\nindustrial application has fructified both science and industry, and has\r\nbrought home to the contemporary mind the fact that the gist of\r\nscientific knowledge is control of natural energies. These four facts,\r\nnatural science, experimentation, control and progress have been\r\ninextricably bound up together. That up to the present the application\r\nof the newer methods and results has influenced the means of life rather\r\nthan its ends; or, better put, that human aims have so far been affected\r\nin an accidental rather than\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_43\" id=\"Page_43\"\u003e[Pg 43]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e in an intelligently directed way,\r\nsignifies that so far the change has been technical rather than human\r\nand moral, that it has been economic rather than adequately social. Put\r\nin the language of Bacon, this means that while we have been reasonably\r\nsuccessful in obtaining command of nature by means of science, our\r\nscience is not yet such that this command is systematically and\r\npre-eminently applied to the relief of human estate. Such applications\r\noccur and in great numbers, but they are incidental, sporadic and\r\nexternal. And this limitation defines the specific problem of\r\nphilosophical reconstruction at the present time. For it emphasizes the\r\nlarger social deficiencies that require intelligent diagnosis, and\r\nprojection of aims and methods.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt is hardly necessary to remind you however that marked political\r\nchanges have already followed upon the new science and its industrial\r\napplications, and that in so far some directions of social development\r\nhave at least been marked out. The growth of the new technique of\r\nindustry has everywhere been followed by the fall of feudal\r\ninstitutions, in which the social pattern was formed in agricultural\r\noccupations and military pursuits. Wherever business in the modern sense\r\nhas gone, the tendency has been to transfer power from land to financial\r\ncapital, from the country to the city, from the farm to factory, from\r\nsocial titles based on personal allegiance, service and protection, to\r\nthose based on\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_44\" id=\"Page_44\"\u003e[Pg 44]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e control of labor and exchange of goods. The change in\r\nthe political centre of gravity has resulted in emancipating the\r\nindividual from bonds of class and custom and in producing a political\r\norganization which depends less upon superior authority and more upon\r\nvoluntary choice. Modern states, in other words, are regarded less as\r\ndivine, and more as human works than they used to be; less as necessary\r\nmanifestations of some supreme and over-ruling principles, and more as\r\ncontrivances of men and women to realize their own desires.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe contract theory of the origin of the state is a theory whose falsity\r\nmay easily be demonstrated both philosophically and historically.\r\nNevertheless this theory has had great currency and influence. In form,\r\nit stated that some time in the past men voluntarily got together and\r\nmade a compact with one another to observe certain laws and to submit to\r\ncertain authority and in that way brought the state and the relation of\r\nruler and subject into existence. Like many things in philosophy, the\r\ntheory, though worthless as a record of fact, is of great worth as a\r\nsymptom of the direction of human desire. It testified to a growing\r\nbelief that the state existed to satisfy human needs and could be shaped\r\nby human intention and volition. Aristotle\u0027s theory that the state\r\nexists by nature failed to satisfy the thought of the seventeenth\r\ncentury because it seemed by making the state a product of nature to\r\nre\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_45\" id=\"Page_45\"\u003e[Pg 45]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003emove its constitution beyond human choice. Equally significant was\r\nthe assumption of the contract theory that individuals by their personal\r\ndecisions expressing their personal wishes bring the state into\r\nexistence. The rapidity with which the theory gained a hold all over\r\nwestern Europe showed the extent to which the bonds of customary\r\ninstitutions had relaxed their grip. It proved that men had been so\r\nliberated from absorption in larger groups that they were conscious of\r\nthemselves as individuals having rights and claims on their own account,\r\nnot simply as members of a class, guild or social grade.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSide by side with this political individualism went a religious and\r\nmoral individualism. The metaphysical doctrine of the superiority of the\r\nspecies to the individual, of the permanent universal to the changing\r\nparticular, was the philosophic support of political and ecclesiastical\r\ninstitutionalism. The universal church was the ground, end and limit of\r\nthe individual\u0027s beliefs and acts in spiritual matters, just as the\r\nfeudal hierarchical organization was the basis, law and fixed limit of\r\nhis behavior in secular affairs. The northern barbarians had never\r\ncompletely come under the sway of classic ideas and customs. That which\r\nwas indigenous where life was primarily derived from Latin sources was\r\nborrowed and more or less externally imposed in Germanic Europe.\r\nProtestantism marked the formal\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_46\" id=\"Page_46\"\u003e[Pg 46]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e breaking away from the domination of\r\nRoman ideas. It effected liberation of individual conscience and worship\r\nfrom control by an organized institution claiming to be permanent and\r\nuniversal. It cannot truly be said that at the outset the new religious\r\nmovement went far in promoting freedom of thought and criticism, or in\r\ndenying the notion of some supreme authority to which individual\r\nintelligence was absolutely in bonds. Nor at first did it go far in\r\nfurthering tolerance or respect for divergency of moral and religious\r\nconvictions. But practically it did tend to disintegration of\r\nestablished institutions. By multiplying sects and churches it\r\nencouraged at least a negative toleration of the right of individuals to\r\njudge ultimate matters for themselves. In time, there developed a\r\nformulated belief in the sacredness of individual conscience and in the\r\nright to freedom of opinion, belief and worship.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt is unnecessary to point out how the spread of this conviction\r\nincreased political individualism, or how it accelerated the willingness\r\nof men to question received ideas in science and philosophy\u0026mdash;to think\r\nand observe and experiment for themselves. Religious individualism\r\nserved to supply a much needed sanction to initiative and independence\r\nof thought in all spheres, even when religious movements officially were\r\nopposed to such freedom when carried beyond a limited point. The\r\ngreatest influence of Protestantism was, however, in developing\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_47\" id=\"Page_47\"\u003e[Pg 47]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e the\r\nidea of the personality of every human being as an end in himself. When\r\nhuman beings were regarded as capable of direct relationship with God,\r\nwithout the intermediary of any organization like the Church, and the\r\ndrama of sin, redemption and salvation was something enacted within the\r\ninnermost soul of individuals rather than in the species of which the\r\nindividual was a subordinate part, a fatal blow was struck at all\r\ndoctrines which taught the subordination of personality\u0026mdash;a blow which\r\nhad many political reverberations in promoting democracy. For when in\r\nreligion the idea of the intrinsic worth of every soul as such was\r\nproclaimed, it was difficult to keep the idea from spilling over, so to\r\nsay, into secular relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe absurdity is obvious of trying in a few paragraphs to summarize\r\nmovements in industry, politics and religion whose influence is still\r\nfar from exhausted and about which hundreds and thousands of volumes\r\nhave been written. But I shall count upon your forbearance to recall\r\nthat these matters are alluded to only in order to suggest some of the\r\nforces that operated to mark out the channels in which new ideas ran.\r\nFirst, there is the transfer of interest from the eternal and universal\r\nto what is changing and specific, concrete\u0026mdash;a movement that showed\r\nitself practically in carrying over of attention and thought from\r\nanother world to this, from the supernaturalism characteristic of the\r\nMiddle Ages\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_48\" id=\"Page_48\"\u003e[Pg 48]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e to delight in natural science, natural activity and natural\r\nintercourse. Secondly, there is the gradual decay of the authority of\r\nfixed institutions and class distinctions and relations, and a growing\r\nbelief in the power of individual minds, guided by methods of\r\nobservation, experiment and reflection, to attain the truths needed for\r\nthe guidance of life. The operations and results of natural inquiry\r\ngained in prestige and power at the expense of principles dictated from\r\nhigh authority.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eConsequently principles and alleged truths are judged more and more by\r\ncriteria of their origin in experience and their consequences of weal\r\nand woe in experience, and less by criteria of sublime origin from\r\nbeyond everyday experience and independent of fruits in experience. It\r\nis no longer enough for a principle to be elevated, noble, universal and\r\nhallowed by time. It must present its birth certificate, it must show\r\nunder just what conditions of human experience it was generated, and it\r\nmust justify itself by its works, present and potential. Such is the\r\ninner meaning of the modern appeal to experience as an ultimate\r\ncriterion of value and validity. In the third place, great store is set\r\nupon the idea of progress. The future rather than the past dominates the\r\nimagination. The Golden Age lies ahead of us not behind us. Everywhere\r\nnew possibilities beckon and arouse courage and effort. The great\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_49\" id=\"Page_49\"\u003e[Pg 49]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nFrench thinkers of the later eighteenth century borrowed this idea from\r\nBacon and developed it into the doctrine of the indefinite\r\nperfectibility of mankind on earth. Man is capable, if he will but\r\nexercise the required courage, intelligence and effort, of shaping his\r\nown fate. Physical conditions offer no insurmountable barriers. In the\r\nfourth place, the patient and experimental study of nature, bearing\r\nfruit in inventions which control nature and subdue her forces to social\r\nuses, is the method by which progress is made. Knowledge is power and\r\nknowledge is achieved by sending the mind to school to nature to learn\r\nher processes of change.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn this lecture as in the previous one, I can hardly close better than\r\nby reference to the new responsibilities imposed upon philosophy and the\r\nnew opportunities opened to it. Upon the whole, the greatest effect of\r\nthese changes up to date has been to substitute an Idealism based on\r\nepistemology, or the theory of knowledge, for the Idealism based on the\r\nmetaphysics of classic antiquity.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eEarlier modern philosophy (even though unconsciously to itself) had the\r\nproblem of reconciling the traditional theory of the rational and ideal\r\nbasis, stuff and end of the universe with the new interest in individual\r\nmind and the new confidence in its capacities. It was in a dilemma. On\r\nthe one hand, it had no intention\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_50\" id=\"Page_50\"\u003e[Pg 50]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e of losing itself in a materialism\r\nwhich subordinated man to physical existence and mind to\r\nmatter\u0026mdash;especially just at the moment when in actual affairs man and\r\nmind were beginning to achieve genuine rule over nature. On the other\r\nhand, the conception that the world as it stood was an embodiment of a\r\nfixed and comprehensive Mind or Reason was uncongenial to those whose\r\nmain concern was with the deficiencies of the world and with an attempt\r\nto remedy them. The effect of the objective theological idealism that\r\nhad developed out of classic metaphysical idealism was to make the mind\r\nsubmissive and acquiescent. The new individualism chafed under the\r\nrestrictions imposed upon it by the notion of a universal reason which\r\nhad once and for all shaped nature and destiny.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn breaking away from antique and medieval thought, accordingly, early\r\nmodern thought continued the older tradition of a Reason that creates\r\nand constitutes the world, but combined it with the notion that this\r\nReason operates through the human mind, individual or collective. This\r\nis the common note of idealism sounded by all the philosophies of the\r\nseventeenth and eighteenth centuries, whether belonging to the British\r\nschool of Locke, Berkeley and Hume or the Continental school of\r\nDescartes. In Kant as everybody knows the two strains came together; and\r\nthe theme of the formation of the knowable world by means of a thought\r\nthat\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_51\" id=\"Page_51\"\u003e[Pg 51]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e operated exclusively through the human knower became explicit.\r\nIdealism ceased to be metaphysical and cosmic in order to become\r\nepistemological and personal.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt is evident that this development represents merely a transitional\r\nstage. It tried, after all, to put the new wine in the old bottles. It\r\ndid not achieve a free and unbiased formulation of the meaning of the\r\npower to direct nature\u0027s forces through knowledge\u0026mdash;that is, purposeful,\r\nexperimental action acting to reshape beliefs and institutions. The\r\nancient tradition was still strong enough to project itself\r\nunconsciously into men\u0027s ways of thinking, and to hamper and compromise\r\nthe expression of the really modern forces and aims. Essential\r\nphilosophic reconstruction represents an attempt to state these causes\r\nand results in a way freed from incompatible inherited factors. It will\r\nregard intelligence not as the original shaper and final cause of\r\nthings, but as the purposeful energetic re-shaper of those phases of\r\nnature and life that obstruct social well-being. It esteems the\r\nindividual not as an exaggeratedly self-sufficient Ego which by some\r\nmagic creates the world, but as the agent who is responsible through\r\ninitiative, inventiveness and intelligently directed labor for\r\nre-creating the world, transforming it into an instrument and possession\r\nof intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe train of ideas represented by the Baconian Knowledge is Power thus\r\nfailed in getting an emanci\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_52\" id=\"Page_52\"\u003e[Pg 52]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003epated and independent expression. These\r\nbecome hopelessly entangled in standpoints and prepossessions that\r\nembodied a social, political and scientific tradition with which they\r\nwere completely incompatible. The obscurity, the confusion of modern\r\nphilosophy is the product of this attempt to combine two things which\r\ncannot possibly be combined either logically or morally. Philosophic\r\nreconstruction for the present is thus the endeavor to undo the\r\nentanglement and to permit the Baconian aspirations to come to a free\r\nand unhindered expression. In succeeding lectures we shall consider the\r\nneeded reconstruction as it affects certain classic philosophic\r\nantitheses, like those of experience and reason, the real and the ideal.\r\nBut first we shall have to consider the modifying effect exercised upon\r\nphilosophy by that changed conception of nature, animate and inanimate,\r\nwhich we owe to the progress of science.\u003c/p\u003e\u003chr class=\"chap\" /\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_53\" id=\"Page_53\"\u003e[Pg 53]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"CHAPTER_III\" id=\"CHAPTER_III\"\u003eCHAPTER III\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003eTHE SCIENTIFIC FACTOR IN RECONSTRUCTION OF PHILOSOPHY\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003ePhilosophy starts from some deep and wide way of responding to the\r\ndifficulties life presents, but it grows only when material is at hand\r\nfor making this practical response conscious, articulate and\r\ncommunicable. Accompanying the economic, political and ecclesiastical\r\nchanges which were alluded to in an earlier lecture, was a scientific\r\nrevolution enormous in scope and leaving unchanged almost no detail of\r\nbelief about nature, physical and human. In part this scientific\r\ntransformation was produced by just the change in practical attitude and\r\ntemper. But as it progressed, it furnished that change an appropriate\r\nvocabulary, congenial to its needs, and made it articulate. The advance\r\nof science in its larger generalizations and in its specific detail of\r\nfact supplied precisely that intellectual equipment of ideas and\r\nconcrete fact that was needed in order to formulate, precipitate,\r\ncommunicate and propagate the new disposition. Today, accordingly, we\r\nshall deal with those contrasting conceptions of the structure and\r\nconstitution of Nature, which when they are accepted on the\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_54\" id=\"Page_54\"\u003e[Pg 54]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e authority\r\nof science (alleged or real), form the intellectual framework of\r\nphilosophy.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ci\u003eContrasting\u003c/i\u003e conceptions of ancient and modern science have been\r\nselected. For I see no way in which the truly philosophic import of the\r\npicture of the world painted by modern science can be appreciated except\r\nto exhibit it in contrast with that earlier picture which gave classic\r\nmetaphysics its intellectual foundation and confirmation. The world in\r\nwhich philosophers once put their trust was a closed world, a world\r\nconsisting internally of a limited number of fixed forms, and having\r\ndefinite boundaries externally. The world of modern science is an open\r\nworld, a world varying indefinitely without the possibility of\r\nassignable limit in its internal make-up, a world stretching beyond any\r\nassignable bounds externally. Again, the world in which even the most\r\nintelligent men of olden times thought they lived was a fixed world, a\r\nrealm where changes went on only within immutable limits of rest and\r\npermanence, and a world where the fixed and unmoving was, as we have\r\nalready noted, higher in quality and authority than the moving and\r\naltering. And in the third place, the world which men once saw with\r\ntheir eyes, portrayed in their imaginations and repeated in their plans\r\nof conduct, was a world of a limited number of classes, kinds, forms,\r\ndistinct in quality (as kinds and species must be distinct) and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_55\" id=\"Page_55\"\u003e[Pg 55]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\narranged in a graded order of superiority and inferiority.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt is not easy to recall the image of the universe which was taken for\r\ngranted in the world tradition. In spite of its dramatic rendering (as\r\nin Dante), of the dialectical elaborations of Aristotle and St. Thomas,\r\nin spite of the fact that it held men\u0027s minds captive until the last\r\nthree hundred years, and that its overthrow involved a religious\r\nupheaval, it is already dim, faded and remote. Even as a separate and\r\nabstract thing of theory it is not easy to recover.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs something pervasive, interwoven with all the details of reflection\r\nand observation, with the plans and rules of behavior, it is impossible\r\nto call it back again. Yet, as best we can, we need to put before our\r\nminds a definitely enclosed universe, something which can be called a\r\nuniverse in a literal and visible sense, having the earth at its fixed\r\nand unchanging centre and at a fixed circumference the heavenly arch of\r\nfixed stars moving in an eternal round of divine ether, hemming in all\r\nthings and keeping them forever at one and in order. The earth, though\r\nat the centre, is the coarsest, grossest, most material, least\r\nsignificant and good (or perfect) of the parts of this closed world. It\r\nis the scene of maximum fluctuation and vicissitude. It is the least\r\nrational, and therefore the least notable, or knowable; it offers the\r\nleast to reward contemplation, provoke\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_56\" id=\"Page_56\"\u003e[Pg 56]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e admiration and govern conduct.\r\nBetween this grossly material centre and the immaterial, spiritual and\r\neternal heavens lie a definite series of regions of moon, planets, sun,\r\netc., each of which gains in rank, value, rationality and true being as\r\nit is farther from earth and nearer the heavens. Each of these regions\r\nis composed of its own appropriate stuff of earth, water, air, fire in\r\nits own dominant degree, until we reach the heavenly firmament which\r\ntranscends all these principles, being constituted, as was just said, of\r\nthat immaterial, inalterable energy called ether.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWithin this tight and pent in universe, changes take place of course.\r\nBut they are only of a small number of fixed kinds; and they operate\r\nonly within fixed limits. Each kind of stuff has its own appropriate\r\nmotion. It is the nature of earthly things to be heavy, since they are\r\ngross, and hence to move downward. Fire and superior things are light\r\nand hence move upward to their proper place; air rises only to the plane\r\nof the planets, where it then takes its back and forth motion which\r\nnaturally belongs to it, as is evident in the winds and in respiration.\r\nEther being the highest of all physical things has a purely circular\r\nmovement. The daily return of the fixed stars is the closest possible\r\napproximation to eternity, and to the self-involved revolution of mind\r\nupon its own ideal axis of reason. Upon the earth in virtue of its\r\nearthly nature\u0026mdash;or rather its\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_57\" id=\"Page_57\"\u003e[Pg 57]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e lack of virtue\u0026mdash;is a scene of mere\r\nchange. Mere flux, aimless and meaningless, starts at no definite point\r\nand arrives at nothing, amounts to nothing. Mere changes of quantity,\r\nall purely mechanical changes, are of this kind. They are like the\r\nshiftings of the sands by the sea. They may be sensed, but they cannot\r\nbe \"noted\" or understood; they lack fixed limits which govern them. They\r\nare contemptible. They are casual, the sport of accident.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eOnly changes which lead to some defined or fixed outcome of form are of\r\nany account and can have any account\u0026mdash;any \u003ci\u003elogos\u003c/i\u003e or reason\u0026mdash;made of\r\nthem. The growth of plants and animals illustrates the highest kind of\r\nchange which is possible in the sublunary or mundane sphere. They go\r\nfrom one definite fixed form to another. Oaks generate only oaks,\r\noysters only oysters, man only man. The material factor of mechanical\r\nproduction enters in, but enters in as accident to prevent the full\r\nconsummation of the type of the species, and to bring about the\r\nmeaningless variations which diversify various oaks or oysters from one\r\nanother; or in extreme cases to produce freaks, sports, monsters,\r\nthree-handed or four-toed men. Aside from accidental and undesirable\r\nvariations, each individual has a fixed career to pursue, a fixed path\r\nin which to travel. Terms which sound modern, words like potentiality\r\nand development abound in Aristotelian thought,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_58\" id=\"Page_58\"\u003e[Pg 58]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e and have misled some\r\ninto reading into his thought modern meanings. But the significance of\r\nthese words in classic and medieval thought is rigidly determined by\r\ntheir context. Development holds merely of the course of changes which\r\ntakes place within a particular member of the species. It is only a name\r\nfor the predetermined movement from the acorn to the oak tree. It takes\r\nplace not in things generally but only in some one of the numerically\r\ninsignificant members of the oak species. Development, evolution, never\r\nmeans, as in modern science, origin of new forms, a mutation from an old\r\nspecies, but only the monotonous traversing of a previously plotted\r\ncycle of change. So potentiality never means, as in modern life, the\r\npossibility of novelty, of invention, of radical deviation, but only\r\nthat principle in virtue of which the acorn becomes the oak.\r\nTechnically, it is the capacity for movement between opposites. Only the\r\ncold can become hot; only the dry can become wet; only the babe can\r\nbecome a man; the seed the full-grown wheat and so on. Potentiality\r\ninstead of implying the emergence of anything novel means merely the\r\nfacility with which a particular thing repeats the recurrent processes\r\nof its kind, and thus becomes a specific case of the eternal forms in\r\nand through which all things are constituted.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn spite of the almost infinite numerical diversity of individuals,\r\nthere are only a limited number of species,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_59\" id=\"Page_59\"\u003e[Pg 59]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e kinds or sorts. And the\r\nworld is essentially a world which falls into sorts; it is pre-arranged\r\ninto distinct classes. Moreover, just as we naturally arrange plants and\r\nanimals into series, ranks and grades, from the lower to the highest, so\r\nwith all things in the universe. The distinct classes to which things\r\nbelong by their very nature form a hierarchical order. There are castes\r\nin nature. The universe is constituted on an aristocratic, one can truly\r\nsay a feudal, plan. Species, classes do not mix or overlap\u0026mdash;except in\r\ncases of accident, and to the result of chaos. Otherwise, everything\r\nbelongs in advance to a certain class, and the class has its own fixed\r\nplace in the hierarchy of Being. The universe is indeed a tidy spot\r\nwhose purity is interfered with only by those irregular changes in\r\nindividuals which are due to the presence of an obdurate matter that\r\nrefuses to yield itself wholly to rule and form. Otherwise it is a\r\nuniverse with a fixed place for everything and where everything knows\r\nits place, its station and class, and keeps it. Hence what are known\r\ntechnically as final and formal causes are supreme, and efficient causes\r\nare relegated to an inferior place. The so-called final cause is just a\r\nname for the fact that there is some fixed form characteristic of a\r\nclass or sort of things which governs the changes going on, so that they\r\ntend toward it as their end and goal, the fulfilment of their true\r\nnature. The supralunar region is the end\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_60\" id=\"Page_60\"\u003e[Pg 60]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e or final cause of the proper\r\nmovements of air and fire; the earth of the motions of crass, heavy\r\nthings; the oak of the acorn; the mature form in general of the\r\ngerminal.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe \"efficient cause,\" that which produces and instigates a movement is\r\nonly some external change as it accidentally gives a kind of push to an\r\nimmature, imperfect being and starts it moving toward its perfected or\r\nfulfilled form. The final cause is the perfected form regarded as the\r\n\u003ci\u003eexplanation or reason\u003c/i\u003e of prior changes. When it is not taken in\r\nreference to the changes completed and brought to rest in it, but in\r\nitself it is the \"formal cause\": The inherent \u003ci\u003enature\u003c/i\u003e or character\r\nwhich \"makes\" or constitutes a thing \u003ci\u003ewhat it is\u003c/i\u003e so far as it truly\r\n\u003ci\u003eis\u003c/i\u003e, namely, what it is so far as it does not change. Logically and\r\npractically all of the traits which have been enumerated cohere. Attack\r\none and you attack all. When any one is undermined, all go. This is the\r\nreason why the intellectual modification of the last few centuries may\r\ntruly be called a revolution. It has substituted a conception of the\r\nworld differing at every point. It makes little matter at what point you\r\ncommence to trace the difference, you find yourself carried into all\r\nother points.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eInstead of a closed universe, science now presents us with one infinite\r\nin space and time, having no limits here or there, at this end, so to\r\nspeak, or at that, and as\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_61\" id=\"Page_61\"\u003e[Pg 61]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e infinitely complex in internal structure as\r\nit is infinite in extent. Hence it is also an open world, an infinitely\r\nvariegated one, a world which in the old sense can hardly be called a\r\nuniverse at all; so multiplex and far-reaching that it cannot be summed\r\nup and grasped in any one formula. And change rather than fixity is now\r\na measure of \"reality\" or energy of being; change is omnipresent. The\r\nlaws in which the modern man of science is interested are laws of\r\nmotion, of generation and consequence. He speaks of law where the\r\nancients spoke of kind and essence, because what he wants is a\r\ncorrelation of changes, an ability to detect one change occurring in\r\ncorrespondence with another. He does not try to define and delimit\r\nsomething remaining constant \u003ci\u003ein\u003c/i\u003e change. He tries to describe a\r\nconstant order \u003ci\u003eof\u003c/i\u003e change. And while the word \"constant\" appears in\r\nboth statements, the meaning of the word is not the same. In one case,\r\nwe are dealing with something constant in \u003ci\u003eexistence\u003c/i\u003e, physical or\r\nmetaphysical; in the other case, with something constant in \u003ci\u003efunction\u003c/i\u003e\r\nand operation. One is a form of independent being; the other is a\r\nformula of description and calculation of interdependent changes.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn short, classic thought accepted a feudally arranged order of classes\r\nor kinds, each \"holding\" from a superior and in turn giving the rule of\r\nconduct and service to an inferior. This trait reflects and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_62\" id=\"Page_62\"\u003e[Pg 62]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e parallels\r\nmost closely the social situation we were considering at the last hour.\r\nWe have a fairly definite notion of society as organized upon the feudal\r\nbasis. The family principle, the principle of kinship is strong, and\r\nespecially is this true as we ascend in the social scale. At the lower\r\nend, individuals may be lost more or less in the mass. Since all are\r\nparts of the common herd, there is nothing especial to distinguish their\r\nbirth. But among the privileged and ruling class the case is quite\r\ndifferent. The tie of kinship at once marks a group off externally and\r\ngives it distinction, and internally holds all its members together.\r\nKinship, kind, class, genus are synonymous terms, starting from social\r\nand concrete facts and going to the technical and abstract. For kinship\r\nis a sign of a common nature, of something universal and permanent\r\nrunning through all particular individuals, and giving them a real and\r\nobjective unity. Because such and such persons are kin they are\r\n\u003ci\u003ereally\u003c/i\u003e, and not merely conventionally, marked off into a class having\r\nsomething unique about it. All contemporary members are bound into an\r\nobjective unity which includes ancestors and descendants and excludes\r\nall who belong to another kin or kind. Assuredly this parcelling out of\r\nthe world into separate kinds, each having its qualitatively distinct\r\nnature in contrast with other species, binding numerically distinct\r\nindividuals together, and preventing their diversities from exceeding\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_63\" id=\"Page_63\"\u003e[Pg 63]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nfixed bounds, may without exaggeration be called a projection of the\r\nfamily principle into the world at large.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn a feudally organized society, moreover, each kinship group or species\r\noccupies a definite place. It is marked by the possession of a specific\r\n\u003ci\u003erank\u003c/i\u003e higher or lower with respect to other grades. This position\r\nconfers upon it certain privileges, enabling it to enforce certain\r\nclaims upon those lower in the scale and entailing upon it certain\r\nservices and homage to be rendered to superiors. The relationship of\r\ncausation, so to speak, is up and down. Influence, power, proceeds from\r\nabove to below; the activities of the inferior are performed with\r\nrespect, quite literally, to what is above. Action and reaction are far\r\nfrom being equal and in opposite directions. All action is of one sort,\r\nof the nature of lordship, and proceeds from the higher to the lower.\r\nReaction is of the nature of subjection and deference and proceeds from\r\nlower to higher. The classic theory of the constitution of the world\r\ncorresponds point by point to this ordering of classes in a scale of\r\ndignity and power.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eA third trait assigned by historians to feudalism is that the ordering\r\nof ranks centres about armed service and the relationship of armed\r\ndefense and protection. I am afraid that what has already been said\r\nabout the parallelism of ancient cosmology with social organization may\r\nseem a fanciful analogy; and if a comparison is also\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_64\" id=\"Page_64\"\u003e[Pg 64]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e drawn in this last\r\nregard, there will be no doubt in your minds that a metaphor is being\r\nforced. Such is truly the case if we take the comparison too literally.\r\nBut not so, if we confine our attention to the notion of rule and\r\ncommand implied in both. Attention has already been called to the\r\nmeaning that is now given the term law\u0026mdash;a constant relationship among\r\nchanges. Nevertheless, we often hear about laws which \"govern\" events,\r\nand it often seems to be thought that phenomena would be utterly\r\ndisorderly were there not laws to keep them in order. This way of\r\nthinking is a survival of reading social relationships into nature\u0026mdash;not\r\nnecessarily a feudal relationship, but the relation of ruler and ruled,\r\nsovereign and subject. Law is assimilated to a command or order. If the\r\nfactor of personal will is eliminated (as it was in the best Greek\r\nthought) still the idea of law or universal is impregnated with the\r\nsense of a guiding and ruling influence exerted from above on what is\r\nnaturally inferior to it. The universal governs as the end and model\r\nwhich the artisan has in mind \"governs\" his movements. The Middle Ages\r\nadded to this Greek idea of control the idea of a command proceeding\r\nfrom a superior will; and hence thought of the operations of nature as\r\nif they were a fulfilment of a task set by one who had authority to\r\ndirect action.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe traits of the picture of nature drawn by modern\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_65\" id=\"Page_65\"\u003e[Pg 65]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e science fairly\r\nspring by contrast into high relief. Modern science took its first step\r\nwhen daring astronomers abolished the distinction of high, sublime and\r\nideal forces operating in the heavens from lower and material forces\r\nactuating terrestrial events. The supposed heterogeneity of substances\r\nand forces between heaven and earth was denied. It was asserted that the\r\nsame laws hold everywhere, that there is homogeneity of material and\r\nprocess everywhere throughout nature. The remote and esthetically\r\nsublime is to be scientifically described and explained in terms of\r\nhomely familiar events and forces. The material of direct handling and\r\nobservation is that of which we are surest; it is the better known.\r\nUntil we can convert the grosser and more superficial observations of\r\nfar-away things in the heavens into elements identical with those of\r\nthings directly at hand, they remain blind and not understood. Instead\r\nof presenting superior worth, they present only problems. They are not\r\nmeans of enlightenment but challenges. The earth is not superior in rank\r\nto sun, moon and stars, but it is equal in dignity, and its occurrences\r\ngive the key to the understanding of celestial existences. Being \u003ci\u003eat\u003c/i\u003e\r\nhand, they are also capable of being brought \u003ci\u003eunder\u003c/i\u003e our hand; they can\r\nbe manipulated, broken up, resolved into elements which can be managed,\r\ncombined at will in old and new forms. The net result may be termed, I\r\nthink, without any great\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_66\" id=\"Page_66\"\u003e[Pg 66]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e forcing, the substitution of a democracy of\r\nindividual facts equal in rank for the feudal system of an ordered\r\ngradation of general classes of unequal rank.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eOne important incident of the new science was the destruction of the\r\nidea that the earth is the centre of the universe. When the idea of a\r\nfixed centre went, there went with it the idea of a closed universe and\r\na circumscribing heavenly boundary. To the Greek sense, just because its\r\ntheory of knowing was dominated by esthetic considerations, the finite\r\nwas the perfect. Literally, the finite was the finished, the ended, the\r\ncompleted, that with no ragged edges and unaccountable operations. The\r\ninfinite or limitless was lacking in character just because it was\r\nin-finite. Being everything, it was nothing. It was unformed and\r\nchaotic, uncontrolled and unruly, the source of incalculable deviations\r\nand accidents. Our present feeling that associates infinity with\r\nboundless power, with capacity for expansion that knows no end, with the\r\ndelight in a progress that has no external limit, would be\r\nincomprehensible were it not that interest has shifted from the esthetic\r\nto the practical; from interest in beholding a harmonious and complete\r\nscene to interest in transforming an inharmonious one. One has only to\r\nread the authors of the transition period, say Giordano Bruno, to\r\nrealize what a pent-in, suffocating sensation they associated with a\r\nclosed, finite world, and what a\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_67\" id=\"Page_67\"\u003e[Pg 67]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e feeling of exhilaration, expansion and\r\nboundless possibility was aroused in them by the thought of a world\r\ninfinite in stretch of space and time, and composed internally of\r\ninfinitesimal infinitely numerous elements. That which the Greeks\r\nwithdrew from with repulsion they welcomed with an intoxicated sense of\r\nadventure. The infinite meant, it was true, something forever\r\nuntraversed even by thought, and hence something forever unknown\u0026mdash;no\r\nmatter how great attainment in learning. But this \"forever unknown\"\r\ninstead of being chilling and repelling was now an inspiring challenge\r\nto ever-renewed inquiry, and an assurance of inexhaustible possibilities\r\nof progress.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe student of history knows well that the Greeks made great progress in\r\nthe science of mechanics as well as of geometry. At first sight, it\r\nappears strange that with this advance in mechanics so little advance\r\nwas made in the direction of modern science. The seeming paradox impels\r\nus to ask why it was that mechanics remained a separate science, why it\r\nwas not used in description and explanation of natural phenomena after\r\nthe manner of Galileo and Newton. The answer is found in the social\r\nparallelism already mentioned. Socially speaking, machines, tools, were\r\ndevices employed by artisans. The science of mechanics had to do with\r\nthe kind of things employed by human mechanics, and mechanics were base\r\nfellows. They were at the\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_68\" id=\"Page_68\"\u003e[Pg 68]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e lower end of the social scale, and how could\r\nlight on the heavens, the highest, be derived from them? The application\r\nof considerations of mechanics to natural phenomena would moreover have\r\nimplied an interest in the practical control and utilization of\r\nphenomena which was totally incompatible with the importance attached to\r\nfinal causes as fixed determiners of nature. All the scientific\r\nreformers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries strikingly agree in\r\nregarding the doctrine of final causes as \u003ci\u003ethe\u003c/i\u003e cause of the failure of\r\nscience. Why? Because this doctrine taught that the processes of nature\r\nare held in bondage to certain fixed ends which they must tend to\r\nrealize. Nature was kept in leading strings; it was cramped down to\r\nproduction of a limited number of stereotyped results. Only a\r\ncomparatively small number of things could be brought into being, and\r\nthese few must be similar to the ends which similar cycles of change had\r\neffected in the past. The scope of inquiry and understanding was limited\r\nto the narrow round of processes eventuating in the fixed ends which the\r\nobserved world offered to view. At best, invention and production of new\r\nresults by use of machines and tools must be restricted to articles of\r\ntransient dignity and bodily, not intellectual, use.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWhen the rigid clamp of fixed ends was taken off from nature,\r\nobservation and imagination were emancipated, and experimental control\r\nfor scientific and prac\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_69\" id=\"Page_69\"\u003e[Pg 69]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003etical purposes enormously stimulated. Because\r\nnatural processes were no longer restricted to a fixed number of\r\nimmovable ends or results, anything might conceivably happen. It was\r\nonly a question of what elements could be brought into juxtaposition so\r\nthat they would work upon one another. Immediately, mechanics ceased to\r\nbe a separate science and became an organ for attacking nature. The\r\nmechanics of the lever, wheel, pulley and inclined plane told accurately\r\nwhat happens when things in space are used to move one another during\r\ndefinite periods of time. The whole of nature became a scene of pushes\r\nand pulls, of cogs and levers, of motions of parts or elements to which\r\nthe formulae of movements produced by well-known machines were directly\r\napplicable.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe banishing of ends and forms from the universe has seemed to many an\r\nideal and spiritual impoverishment. When nature was regarded as a set of\r\nmechanical interactions, it apparently lost all meaning and purpose. Its\r\nglory departed. Elimination of differences of quality deprived it of\r\nbeauty. Denial to nature of all inherent longings and aspiring\r\ntendencies toward ideal ends removed nature and natural science from\r\ncontact with poetry, religion and divine things. There seemed to be left\r\nonly a harsh, brutal despiritualized exhibition of mechanical forces. As\r\na consequence, it has seemed to many philosophers that one of their\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_70\" id=\"Page_70\"\u003e[Pg 70]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nchief problems was to reconcile the existence of this purely mechanical\r\nworld with belief in objective rationality and purpose\u0026mdash;to save life\r\nfrom a degrading materialism. Hence many sought to re-attain by way of\r\nan analysis of the process of knowing, or epistemology, that belief in\r\nthe superiority of Ideal Being which had anciently been maintained on\r\nthe basis of cosmology. But when it is recognized that the mechanical\r\nview is determined by the requirements of an experimental control of\r\nnatural energies, this problem of reconciliation no longer vexes us.\r\nFixed forms and ends, let us recall, mark fixed limits to change. Hence\r\nthey make futile all human efforts to produce and regulate change except\r\nwithin narrow and unimportant limits. They paralyze constructive human\r\ninventions by a theory which condemns them in advance to failure. Human\r\nactivity can conform only to ends already set by nature. It was not till\r\nends were banished from nature that purposes became important as factors\r\nin human minds capable of reshaping existence. A natural world that does\r\nnot subsist for the sake of realizing a fixed set of ends is relatively\r\nmalleable and plastic; it may be used for this end \u003ci\u003eor\u003c/i\u003e that. That\r\nnature can be known through the application of mechanical formulae is\r\nthe prime condition of turning it to human account. Tools, machines are\r\nmeans to be utilized. Only when nature is regarded as mechanical, is\r\nsystematic invention and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_71\" id=\"Page_71\"\u003e[Pg 71]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e construction of machines relevant to nature\u0027s\r\nactivities. Nature is subdued to human purpose because it is no longer\r\nthe slave of metaphysical and theological purpose.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eBergson has pointed out that man might well be called \u003ci\u003eHomo Faber\u003c/i\u003e. He\r\nis distinguished as the tool-making animal. This has held good since man\r\nwas man; but till nature was construed in mechanical terms, the making\r\nof tools with which to attack and transform nature was sporadic and\r\naccidental. Under such circumstances it would not have occurred even to\r\na Bergson that man\u0027s tool-making capacity was so important and\r\nfundamental that it could be used to define him. The very things that\r\nmake the nature of the mechanical-physical scientist esthetically blank\r\nand dull are the things which render nature amenable to human control.\r\nWhen qualities were subordinated to quantitative and mathematical\r\nrelationships, color, music and form disappeared from the object of the\r\nscientist\u0027s inquiry as such. But the remaining properties of weight,\r\nextension, numerable velocity of movement and so on were just the\r\nqualities which lent themselves to the substitution of one thing for\r\nanother, to the conversion of one form of energy into another; to the\r\neffecting of transformations. When chemical fertilizers can be used in\r\nplace of animal manures, when improved grain and cattle can be\r\npurposefully bred from inferior animals\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_72\" id=\"Page_72\"\u003e[Pg 72]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e and grasses, when mechanical\r\nenergy can be converted into heat and electricity into mechanical\r\nenergy, man gains power to manipulate nature. Most of all he gains power\r\nto frame \u003ci\u003enew\u003c/i\u003e ends and aims and to proceed in regular system to their\r\nactualization. Only indefinite substitution and convertibility\r\nregardless of quality render nature manageable. The mechanization of\r\nnature is the condition of a practical and progressive idealism in\r\naction.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt thus turns out that the old, old dread and dislike of matter as\r\nsomething opposed to mind and threatening it, to be kept within the\r\nnarrowest bounds of recognition; something to be denied so far as\r\npossible lest it encroach upon ideal purposes and finally exclude them\r\nfrom the real world, is as absurd practically as it was impotent\r\nintellectually. Judged from the only scientific standpoint, what it does\r\nand how it functions, matter means conditions. To respect matter means\r\nto respect the conditions of achievement; conditions which hinder and\r\nobstruct and which have to be changed, conditions which help and further\r\nand which can be used to modify obstructions and attain ends. Only as\r\nmen have learned to pay sincere and persistent regard to matter, to the\r\nconditions upon which depends negatively and positively the success of\r\nall endeavor, have they shown sincere and fruitful respect for ends and\r\npurposes. To profess to have an aim and then neglect\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_73\" id=\"Page_73\"\u003e[Pg 73]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e the means of its\r\nexecution is self-delusion of the most dangerous sort. Education and\r\nmorals will begin to find themselves on the same road of advance that\r\nsay chemical industry and medicine have found for themselves when they\r\ntoo learn fully the lesson of wholehearted and unremitting attention to\r\nmeans and conditions\u0026mdash;that is, to what mankind so long despised as\r\nmaterial and mechanical. When we take means for ends we indeed fall into\r\nmoral materialism. But when we take ends without regard to means we\r\ndegenerate into sentimentalism. In the name of the ideal we fall back\r\nupon mere luck and chance and magic or exhortation and preaching; or\r\nelse upon a fanaticism that will force the realization of preconceived\r\nends at any cost.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eI have touched in this lecture upon many things in a cursory way. Yet\r\nthere has been but one point in mind. The revolution in our conceptions\r\nof nature and in our methods of knowing it has bred a new temper of\r\nimagination and aspiration. It has confirmed the new attitude generated\r\nby economic and political changes. It has supplied this attitude with\r\ndefinite intellectual material with which to formulate and justify\r\nitself.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn the first lecture it was noted that in Greek life prosaic matter of\r\nfact or empirical knowledge was at a great disadvantage as compared with\r\nthe imaginative beliefs that were bound up with special institutions\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_74\" id=\"Page_74\"\u003e[Pg 74]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nand moral habitudes. Now this empirical knowledge has grown till it has\r\nbroken its low and limited sphere of application and esteem. It has\r\nitself become an organ of inspiring imagination through introducing\r\nideas of boundless possibility, indefinite progress, free movement,\r\nequal opportunity irrespective of fixed limits. It has reshaped social\r\ninstitutions, and in so far developed a new morale. It has achieved\r\nideal values. It is convertible into creative and constructive\r\nphilosophy.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eConvertible, however, rather than already converted. When we consider\r\nhow deeply embedded in customs of thought and action the classic\r\nphilosophy came to be and how congenial it is to man\u0027s more spontaneous\r\nbeliefs, the throes that attended its birth are not to be wondered at.\r\nWe should rather wonder that a view so upsetting, so undermining, made\r\nits way without more persecutions, martyrdoms and disturbances. It\r\ncertainly is not surprising that its complete and consistent formulation\r\nin philosophy has been long delayed. The main efforts of thinkers were\r\ninevitably directed to minimizing the shock of change, easing the\r\nstrains of transition, mediating and reconciling. When we look back upon\r\nalmost all of the thinkers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,\r\nupon all excepting those who were avowedly sceptical and revolutionary,\r\nwhat strikes us is the amount of traditional subject-matter and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_75\" id=\"Page_75\"\u003e[Pg 75]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e method\r\nthat is to be found even among those who were regarded as most advanced.\r\nMen cannot easily throw off their old habits of thinking, and never can\r\nthrow off all of them at once. In developing, teaching and receiving new\r\nideas we are compelled to use some of the old ones as tools of\r\nunderstanding and communication. Only piecemeal, step-by-step, could the\r\nfull import of the new science be grasped. Roughly speaking, the\r\nseventeenth century witnessed its application in astronomy and general\r\ncosmology; the eighteenth century in physics and chemistry; the\r\nnineteenth century undertook an application in geology and the\r\nbiological sciences.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt was said that it has now become extremely difficult to recover the\r\nview of the world which universally obtained in Europe till the\r\nseventeenth century. Yet after all we need only recur to the science of\r\nplants and animals as it was before Darwin and to the ideas which even\r\nnow are dominant in moral and political matters to find the older order\r\nof conceptions in full possession of the popular mind. Until the dogma\r\nof fixed unchangeable types and species, of arrangement in classes of\r\nhigher and lower, of subordination of the transitory individual to the\r\nuniversal or kind had been shaken in its hold upon the science of life,\r\nit was impossible that the new ideas and method should be made at home\r\nin social and moral life. Does it not seem to be\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_76\" id=\"Page_76\"\u003e[Pg 76]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e the intellectual task\r\nof the twentieth century to take this last step? When this step is taken\r\nthe circle of scientific development will be rounded out and the\r\nreconstruction of philosophy be made an accomplished fact.\u003c/p\u003e\u003chr class=\"chap\" /\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_77\" id=\"Page_77\"\u003e[Pg 77]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"CHAPTER_IV\" id=\"CHAPTER_IV\"\u003eCHAPTER IV\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003eCHANGED CONCEPTIONS OF EXPERIENCE AND REASON\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWhat is experience and what is Reason, Mind? What is the scope of\r\nexperience and what are its limits? How far is it a sure ground of\r\nbelief and a safe guide of conduct? Can we trust it in science and in\r\nbehavior? Or is it a quagmire as soon as we pass beyond a few low\r\nmaterial interests? Is it so shaky, shifting, and shallow that instead\r\nof affording sure footing, safe paths to fertile fields, it misleads,\r\nbetrays, and engulfs? Is a Reason outside experience and above it needed\r\nto supply assured principles to science and conduct? In one sense, these\r\nquestions suggest technical problems of abstruse philosophy; in another\r\nsense, they contain the deepest possible questionings regarding the\r\ncareer of man. They concern the criteria he is to employ in forming his\r\nbeliefs; the principles \u003ci\u003eby\u003c/i\u003e which he is to direct his life and the ends\r\n\u003ci\u003eto\u003c/i\u003e which he is to direct it. Must man transcend experience by some\r\norgan of unique character that carries him into the super-empirical?\r\nFailing this, must he wander sceptical and disillusioned? Or is human\r\nexperience itself worth\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_78\" id=\"Page_78\"\u003e[Pg 78]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e while in its purposes and its methods of\r\nguidance? Can it organize itself into stable courses or must it be\r\nsustained from without?\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWe know the answers of traditional philosophy. They do not thoroughly\r\nagree among themselves, but they agree that experience never rises above\r\nthe level of the particular, the contingent, and the probable. Only a\r\npower transcending in origin and content any and all conceivable\r\nexperience can attain to universal, necessary and certain authority and\r\ndirection. The empiricists themselves admitted the correctness of these\r\nassertions. They only said that since there is no faculty of Pure Reason\r\nin the possession of mankind, we must put up with what we have,\r\nexperience, and make the most possible out of it. They contented\r\nthemselves with sceptical attacks upon the transcendentalist, with\r\nindications of the ways in which we might best seize the meaning and\r\ngood of the passing moment; or like Locke, asserted that in spite of the\r\nlimitation of experience, it affords the light needed to guide men\u0027s\r\nfootsteps modestly in conduct. They affirmed that the alleged\r\nauthoritative guidance by a higher faculty had practically hampered men.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt is the function of this lecture to show how and why it is now\r\npossible to make claims for experience as a guide in science and moral\r\nlife which the older empiricists did not and could not make for it.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_79\" id=\"Page_79\"\u003e[Pg 79]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eCuriously enough, the key to the matter may be found in the fact that\r\nthe old notion of experience was itself a product of experience\u0026mdash;the\r\nonly kind of experience which was then open to men. If another\r\nconception of experience is now possible, it is precisely because the\r\nquality of experience as it may now be lived has undergone a profound\r\nsocial and intellectual change from that of earlier times. The account\r\nof experience which we find in Plato and Aristotle is an account of what\r\nGreek experience actually was. It agrees very closely with what the\r\nmodern psychologist knows as the method of learning by trial and error\r\nas distinct from the method of learning by ideas. Men tried certain\r\nacts, they underwent certain sufferings and affections. Each of these in\r\nthe time of its occurrence is isolated, particular\u0026mdash;its counterpart is\r\ntransient appetite and transient sensation. But memory preserves and\r\naccumulates these separate incidents. As they pile up, irregular\r\nvariations get cancelled, common features are selected, reinforced and\r\ncombined. Gradually a habit of action is built up, and corresponding to\r\nthis habit there forms a certain generalized picture of an object or\r\nsituation. We come to know or note not merely this particular which as a\r\nparticular cannot strictly be known at all (for not being classed it\r\ncannot be characterized and identified) but to recognize it as man,\r\ntree, stone, leather\u0026mdash;an individual of a certain kind, marked by a\r\ncertain\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_80\" id=\"Page_80\"\u003e[Pg 80]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e universal form characteristic of a whole species of thing.\r\nAlong with the development of this common-sense knowledge, there grows\r\nup a certain regularity of conduct. The particular incidents fuse, and a\r\n\u003ci\u003eway\u003c/i\u003e of acting which is general, as far as it goes, builds up. The\r\nskill develops which is shown by the artisan, the shoemaker, the\r\ncarpenter, the gymnast, the physician, who have regular ways of handling\r\ncases. This regularity signifies, of course, that the particular case is\r\nnot treated as an isolated particular, but as one of a kind, which\r\ntherefore demands a \u003ci\u003ekind\u003c/i\u003e of action. From the multitude of particular\r\nillnesses encountered, the physician in learning to class some of them\r\nas indigestion learns also to treat the cases of the class in a common\r\nor general way. He forms the rule of recommending a certain diet, and\r\nprescribing a certain remedy. All this forms what we call experience. It\r\nresults, as the illustration shows, in a certain general insight and a\r\ncertain organized ability in action.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eBut needless to insist, the generality and the organization are\r\nrestricted and fallible. They hold, as Aristotle was fond of pointing\r\nout, usually, in most cases, as a rule, but not universally, of\r\nnecessity, or as a principle. The physician is bound to make mistakes,\r\nbecause individual cases are bound to vary unaccountably: such is their\r\nvery nature. The difficulty does not arise in \u003ci\u003ea\u003c/i\u003e defective experience\r\nwhich is capable of\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_81\" id=\"Page_81\"\u003e[Pg 81]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e remedy in some better experience. Experience\r\nitself, as such, is defective, and hence default is inevitable and\r\nirremediable. The only universality and certainty is in a region above\r\nexperience, that of the rational and conceptual. As the particular was a\r\nstepping-stone to image and habit, so the latter may become a\r\nstepping-stone to conceptions and principles. But the latter leave\r\nexperience behind, untouched; they do not react to rectify it. Such is\r\nthe notion which still lingers in the contrast of \"empirical\" and\r\n\"rational\" as when we say that a certain architect or physician is\r\nempirical, not scientific in his procedures. But the difference between\r\nthe classic and the modern notion of experience is revealed in the fact\r\nthat such a statement is now a charge, a disparaging accusation, brought\r\nagainst \u003ci\u003ea\u003c/i\u003e particular architect or physician. With Plato, Aristotle and\r\nthe Scholastic, it was a charge against the callings, since they were\r\nmodes of experience. It was an indictment of all practical action in\r\ncontrast with conceptual contemplation.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe modern philosopher who has professed himself an empiricist has\r\nusually had a critical purpose in mind. Like Bacon, Locke, Condillac and\r\nHelvetius, he stood face to face with a body of beliefs and a set of\r\ninstitutions in which he profoundly disbelieved. His problem was the\r\nproblem of attack upon so much dead weight carried uselessly by\r\nhumanity, crushing and distorting\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_82\" id=\"Page_82\"\u003e[Pg 82]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e it. His readiest way of undermining\r\nand disintegrating was by appealing to experience as a final test and\r\ncriterion. In every case, active reformers were \"empiricists\" in the\r\nphilosophical sense. They made it their business to show that some\r\ncurrent belief or institution that claimed the sanction of innate ideas\r\nor necessary conceptions, or an origin in an authoritative revelation of\r\nreason, had in fact proceeded from a lowly origin in experience, and had\r\nbeen confirmed by accident, by class interest or by biased authority.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe philosophic empiricism initiated by Locke was thus disintegrative in\r\nintent. It optimistically took it for granted that when the burden of\r\nblind custom, imposed authority, and accidental associations was\r\nremoved, progress in science and social organization would spontaneously\r\ntake place. Its part was to help in removing the burden. The best way to\r\nliberate men from the burden was through a natural history of the origin\r\nand growth in the mind of the ideas connected with objectionable beliefs\r\nand customs. Santayana justly calls the psychology of this school a\r\nmalicious psychology. It tended to identify the history of the formation\r\nof certain ideas with an account of the things to which the ideas\r\nrefer\u0026mdash;an identification which naturally had an unfavorable effect on\r\nthe things. But Mr. Santayana neglects to notice the social zeal and aim\r\nlatent in the malice. He fails to point out that this\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_83\" id=\"Page_83\"\u003e[Pg 83]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e \"malice\" was\r\naimed at institutions and traditions which had lost their usefulness; he\r\nfails to point out that to a large extent it was true of them that an\r\naccount of their psychological origin was equivalent to a destructive\r\naccount of the things themselves. But after Hume with debonair clarity\r\npointed out that the analysis of beliefs into sensations and\r\nassociations left \"natural\" ideas and institutions in the same position\r\nin which the reformers had placed \"artificial\" ones, the situation\r\nchanged. The rationalists employed the logic of\r\nsensationalistic-empiricism to show that experience, giving only a heap\r\nof chaotic and isolated particulars, is as fatal to science and to moral\r\nlaws and obligations as to obnoxious institutions; and concluded that\r\n\"Reason\" must be resorted to if experience was to be furnished with any\r\nbinding and connecting principles. The new rationalistic idealism of\r\nKant and his successors seemed to be necessitated by the totally\r\ndestructive results of the new empirical philosophy.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eTwo things have rendered possible a new conception of experience and a\r\nnew conception of the relation of reason to experience, or, more\r\naccurately, of the place of reason \u003ci\u003ein\u003c/i\u003e experience. The primary factor\r\nis the change that has taken place in the actual nature of experience,\r\nits contents and methods, as it is actually lived. The other is the\r\ndevelopment of a psychology\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_84\" id=\"Page_84\"\u003e[Pg 84]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e based upon biology which makes possible a\r\nnew scientific formulation of the nature of experience.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eLet us begin with the technical side\u0026mdash;the change in psychology. We are\r\nonly just now commencing to appreciate how completely exploded is the\r\npsychology that dominated philosophy throughout the eighteenth and\r\nnineteenth centuries. According to this theory, mental life originated\r\nin sensations which are separately and passively received, and which are\r\nformed, through laws of retention and association, into a mosaic of\r\nimages, perceptions, and conceptions. The senses were regarded as\r\ngateways or avenues of knowledge. Except in combining atomic sensations,\r\nthe mind was wholly passive and acquiescent in knowing. Volition,\r\naction, emotion, and desire follow in the wake of sensations and images.\r\nThe intellectual or cognitive factor comes first and emotional and\r\nvolitional life is only a consequent conjunction of ideas with\r\nsensations of pleasure and pain.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe effect of the development of biology has been to reverse the\r\npicture. Wherever there is life, there is behavior, activity. In order\r\nthat life may persist, this activity has to be both continuous and\r\nadapted to the environment. This adaptive adjustment, moreover, is not\r\nwholly passive; is not a mere matter of the moulding of the organism by\r\nthe environment. Even a clam acts upon the environment and modifies it\r\nto some extent. It selects materials for food and for the shell that\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_85\" id=\"Page_85\"\u003e[Pg 85]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nprotects it. It does something to the environment as well as has\r\nsomething done to itself. There is no such thing in a living creature as\r\nmere conformity to conditions, though parasitic forms may approach this\r\nlimit. In the interests of the maintenance of life there is\r\ntransformation of some elements in the surrounding medium. The higher\r\nthe form of life, the more important is the active reconstruction of the\r\nmedium. This increased control may be illustrated by the contrast of\r\nsavage with civilized man. Suppose the two are living in a wilderness.\r\nWith the savage there is the maximum of accommodation to given\r\nconditions; the minimum of what we may call hitting back. The savage\r\ntakes things \"as they are,\" and by using caves and roots and occasional\r\npools leads a meagre and precarious existence. The civilized man goes to\r\ndistant mountains and dams streams. He builds reservoirs, digs channels,\r\nand conducts the waters to what had been a desert. He searches the world\r\nto find plants and animals that will thrive. He takes native plants and\r\nby selection and cross-fertilization improves them. He introduces\r\nmachinery to till the soil and care for the harvest. By such means he\r\nmay succeed in making the wilderness blossom like the rose.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSuch transformation scenes are so familiar that we overlook their\r\nmeaning. We forget that the inherent power of life is illustrated in\r\nthem. Note what a change\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_86\" id=\"Page_86\"\u003e[Pg 86]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e this point of view entails in the traditional\r\nnotions of experience. Experience becomes an affair primarily of doing.\r\nThe organism does not stand about, Micawber-like, waiting for something\r\nto turn up. It does not wait passive and inert for something to impress\r\nitself upon it from without. The organism acts in accordance with its\r\nown structure, simple or complex, upon its surroundings. As a\r\nconsequence the changes produced in the environment react upon the\r\norganism and its activities. The living creature undergoes, suffers, the\r\nconsequences of its own behavior. This close connection between doing\r\nand suffering or undergoing forms what we call experience. Disconnected\r\ndoing and disconnected suffering are neither of them experiences.\r\nSuppose fire encroaches upon a man when he is asleep. Part of his body\r\nis burned away. The burn does not perceptibly result from what he has\r\ndone. There is nothing which in any instructive way can be named\r\nexperience. Or again there is a series of mere activities, like\r\ntwitchings of muscles in a spasm. The movements amount to nothing; they\r\nhave no consequences for life. Or, if they have, these consequences are\r\nnot connected with prior doing. There is no experience, no learning, no\r\ncumulative process. But suppose a busy infant puts his finger in the\r\nfire; the doing is random, aimless, without intention or reflection. But\r\nsomething happens in consequence. The child undergoes heat, he suffers\r\npain.\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_87\" id=\"Page_87\"\u003e[Pg 87]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e The doing and undergoing, the reaching and the burn, are\r\nconnected. One comes to suggest and mean the other. Then there is\r\nexperience in a vital and significant sense.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eCertain important implications for philosophy follow. In the first\r\nplace, the interaction of organism and environment, resulting in some\r\nadaptation which secures utilization of the latter, is the primary fact,\r\nthe basic category. Knowledge is relegated to a derived position,\r\nsecondary in origin, even if its importance, when once it is\r\nestablished, is overshadowing. Knowledge is not something separate and\r\nself-sufficing, but is involved in the process by which life is\r\nsustained and evolved. The senses lose their place as gateways of\r\nknowing to take their rightful place as stimuli to action. To an animal\r\nan affection of the eye or ear is not an idle piece of information about\r\nsomething indifferently going on in the world. It is an invitation and\r\ninducement to act in a needed way. It is a clue in behavior, a directive\r\nfactor in adaptation of life in its surroundings. It is urgent not\r\ncognitive in quality. The whole controversy between empiricism and\r\nrationalism as to the intellectual worth of sensations is rendered\r\nstrangely obsolete. The discussion of sensations belongs under the head\r\nof immediate stimulus and response, not under the head of knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs a \u003ci\u003econscious\u003c/i\u003e element, a sensation marks an inter\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_88\" id=\"Page_88\"\u003e[Pg 88]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003eruption in a course\r\nof action previously entered upon. Many psychologists since the time of\r\nHobbes have dwelt upon what they call the relativity of sensations. We\r\n\u003ci\u003efeel\u003c/i\u003e or sense cold in transition from warmth rather than absolutely;\r\nhardness is sensed upon a background of less resistance; a color in\r\ncontrast with pure light or pure dark or in contrast with some other\r\nhue. A continuously unchanged tone or color cannot be attended to or\r\nsensed. What we take to be such monotonously prolonged sensations are in\r\ntruth constantly interrupted by incursions of other elements, and\r\nrepresent a series of excursions back and forth. This fact was, however,\r\nmisconstrued into a doctrine about the nature of knowledge. Rationalists\r\nused it to discredit sense as a valid or high mode of knowing things,\r\nsince according to it we never get hold of anything \u003ci\u003ein itself\u003c/i\u003e or\r\nintrinsically. Sensationalists used it to disparage all pretence at\r\nabsolute knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eProperly speaking, however, this fact of the relativity of sensation\r\ndoes not in the least belong in the sphere of knowing. Sensations of\r\nthis sort are emotional and practical rather than cognitive and\r\nintellectual. They are shocks of change, due to interruption of a prior\r\nadjustment. They are signals to redirections of action. Let me take a\r\ntrivial illustration. The person who is taking notes has no sensation of\r\nthe pressure of his pencil on the paper or on his hand as long\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_89\" id=\"Page_89\"\u003e[Pg 89]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e as it\r\nfunctions properly. It operates merely as stimulus to ready and\r\neffective adjustment. The sensory activity incites automatically and\r\nunconsciously its proper motor response. There is a preformed\r\nphysiological connection, acquired from habit but ultimately going back\r\nto an original connection in the nervous system. If the pencil-point\r\ngets broken or too blunt and the habit of writing does not operate\r\nsmoothly, there is a conscious shock:\u0026mdash;the feeling of something the\r\nmatter, something gone wrong. This emotional change operates as a\r\nstimulus to a needed change in operation. One looks at his pencil,\r\nsharpens it or takes another pencil from one\u0027s pocket. The sensation\r\noperates as a pivot of readjusting behavior. It marks a break in the\r\nprior routine of writing and the beginning of some other mode of action.\r\nSensations are \"relative\" in the sense of marking transitions in habits\r\nof behavior from one course to another way of behaving.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe rationalist was thus right in denying that sensations as such are\r\ntrue elements of knowledge. But the reasons he gave for this conclusion\r\nand the consequences he drew from it were all wrong. Sensations are not\r\nparts of \u003ci\u003eany\u003c/i\u003e knowledge, good or bad, superior or inferior, imperfect\r\nor complete. They are rather provocations, incitements, challenges to an\r\nact of inquiry which is to \u003ci\u003eterminate\u003c/i\u003e in knowledge. They are not ways\r\nof knowing things inferior in value to reflective ways, to\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_90\" id=\"Page_90\"\u003e[Pg 90]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e the ways\r\nthat require thought and inference, because they are not ways of knowing\r\nat all. They are stimuli to reflection and inference. As interruptions,\r\nthey raise the questions: What does this shock mean? What is happening?\r\nWhat is the matter? How is my relation to the environment disturbed?\r\nWhat should be done about it? How shall I alter my course of action to\r\nmeet the change that has taken place in the surroundings? How shall I\r\nreadjust my behavior in response? Sensation is thus, as the\r\nsensationalist claimed, the beginning of knowledge, but only in the\r\nsense that the experienced shock of change is the necessary stimulus to\r\nthe investigating and comparing which eventually produce knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWhen experience is aligned with the life-process and sensations are seen\r\nto be points of readjustment, the alleged atomism of sensations totally\r\ndisappears. With this disappearance is abolished the need for a\r\nsynthetic faculty of super-empirical reason to connect them. Philosophy\r\nis not any longer confronted with the hopeless problem of finding a way\r\nin which separate grains of sand may be woven into a strong and coherent\r\nrope\u0026mdash;or into the illusion and pretence of one. When the isolated and\r\nsimple existences of Locke and Hume are seen not to be truly empirical\r\nat all but to answer to certain demands of their theory of mind, the\r\nnecessity ceases for the elaborate Kantian and Post-Kantian ma\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_91\" id=\"Page_91\"\u003e[Pg 91]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003echinery\r\nof \u003ci\u003ea priori\u003c/i\u003e concepts and categories to synthesize the alleged stuff of\r\nexperience. The true \"stuff\" of experience is recognized to be adaptive\r\ncourses of action, habits, active functions, connections of doing and\r\nundergoing; sensori-motor co-ordinations. Experience carries principles\r\nof connection and organization within itself. These principles are none\r\nthe worse because they are vital and practical rather than\r\nepistemological. Some degree of organization is indispensable to even\r\nthe lowest grade of life. Even an amoeba must have some continuity in\r\ntime in its activity and some adaptation to its environment in space.\r\nIts life and experience cannot possibly consist in momentary, atomic,\r\nand self-enclosed sensations. Its activity has reference to its\r\nsurroundings and to what goes before and what comes after. This\r\norganization intrinsic to life renders unnecessary a super-natural and\r\nsuper-empirical synthesis. It affords the basis and material for a\r\npositive evolution of intelligence as an organizing factor within\r\nexperience.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eNor is it entirely aside from the subject to point out the extent in\r\nwhich social as well as biological organization enters into the\r\nformation of human experience. Probably one thing that strengthened the\r\nidea that the mind is passive and receptive in knowing was the\r\nobservation of the helplessness of the human infant. But the observation\r\npoints in quite another direction.\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_92\" id=\"Page_92\"\u003e[Pg 92]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e Because of his physical dependence\r\nand impotency, the contacts of the little child with nature are mediated\r\nby other persons. Mother and nurse, father and older children, determine\r\nwhat experiences the child shall have; they constantly instruct him as\r\nto the meaning of what he does and undergoes. The conceptions that are\r\nsocially current and important become the child\u0027s principles of\r\ninterpretation and estimation long before he attains to personal and\r\ndeliberate control of conduct. Things come to him clothed in language,\r\nnot in physical nakedness, and this garb of communication makes him a\r\nsharer in the beliefs of those about him. These beliefs coming to him as\r\nso many facts form his mind; they furnish the centres about which his\r\nown personal expeditions and perceptions are ordered. Here we have\r\n\"categories\" of connection and unification as important as those of\r\nKant, but empirical not mythological.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eFrom these elementary, if somewhat technical considerations, we turn to\r\nthe change which experience itself has undergone in the passage from\r\nancient and medieval to modern life. To Plato, experience meant\r\nenslavement to the past, to custom. Experience was almost equivalent to\r\nestablished customs formed not by reason or under intelligent control\r\nbut by repetition and blind rule of thumb. Only reason can lift us above\r\nsubjection to the accidents of the past. When we come to Bacon and his\r\nsuccessors, we discover a curious re\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_93\" id=\"Page_93\"\u003e[Pg 93]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003eversal. Reason and its bodyguard of\r\ngeneral notions is now the conservative, mind-enslaving factor.\r\nExperience is the liberating power. Experience means the new, that which\r\ncalls us away from adherence to the past, that which reveals novel facts\r\nand truths. Faith in experience produces not devotion to custom but\r\nendeavor for progress. This difference in temper is the more significant\r\nbecause it was so unconsciously taken for granted. Some concrete and\r\nvital change must have occurred in actual experience as that is lived.\r\nFor, after all, the thought of experience follows after and is modelled\r\nupon the experience actually undergone.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWhen mathematics and other rational sciences developed among the Greeks,\r\nscientific truths did not react back into daily experience. They\r\nremained isolated, apart and super-imposed. Medicine was the art in\r\nwhich perhaps the greatest amount of positive knowledge was obtained,\r\nbut it did not reach the dignity of science. It remained an art. In\r\npractical arts, moreover, there was no conscious invention or purposeful\r\nimprovement. Workers followed patterns that were handed down to them,\r\nwhile departure from established standards and models usually resulted\r\nin degenerate productions. Improvements came either from a slow,\r\ngradual, and unacknowledged accumulation of changes or else from some\r\nsudden inspiration, which at once set a new stand\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_94\" id=\"Page_94\"\u003e[Pg 94]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003eard. Being the result\r\nof no conscious method, it was fittingly attributed to the gods. In the\r\nsocial arts, such a radical reformer as Plato felt that existing evils\r\nwere due to the absence of such fixed patterns as controlled the\r\nproductions of artisans. The ethical purport of philosophy was to\r\nfurnish them, and when once they were instituted, they were to be\r\nconsecrated by religion, adorned by art, inculcated by education and\r\nenforced by magistrates so that alteration of them would be impossible.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt is unnecessary to repeat what has been so often dwelt upon as to the\r\neffect of experimental science in enabling man to effect a deliberate\r\ncontrol of his environment. But since the impact of this control upon\r\nthe traditional notion of experience is often overlooked, we must point\r\nout that when experience ceased to be empirical and became experimental,\r\nsomething of radical importance occurred. Aforetime man employed the\r\nresults of his prior experience only to form customs that henceforth had\r\nto be blindly followed or blindly broken. Now, old experience is used to\r\nsuggest aims and methods for developing a new and improved experience.\r\nConsequently experience becomes in so far constructively\r\nself-regulative. What Shakespeare so pregnantly said of nature, it is\r\n\"made better by no mean, but nature makes that mean,\" becomes true of\r\nexperience. We do not merely have to repeat the past,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_95\" id=\"Page_95\"\u003e[Pg 95]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e or wait for\r\naccidents to force change upon us. We \u003ci\u003euse\u003c/i\u003e our past experiences to\r\nconstruct new and better ones in the future. The very fact of experience\r\nthus includes the process by which it directs itself in its own\r\nbetterment.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eScience, \"reason\" is not therefore something laid from above upon\r\nexperience. Suggested and tested in experience, it is also employed\r\nthrough inventions in a thousand ways to expand and enrich experience.\r\nAlthough, as has been so often repeated, this self-creation and\r\nself-regulation of experience is still largely technological rather than\r\ntruly artistic or human, yet what has been achieved contains the\r\nguaranty of the possibility of an intelligent administering of\r\nexperience. The limits are moral and intellectual, due to defects in our\r\ngood will and knowledge. They are not inherent metaphysically in the\r\nvery nature of experience. \"Reason\" as a faculty separate from\r\nexperience, introducing us to a superior region of universal truths\r\nbegins now to strike us as remote, uninteresting and unimportant.\r\nReason, as a Kantian faculty that introduces generality and regularity\r\ninto experience, strikes us more and more as superfluous\u0026mdash;the\r\nunnecessary creation of men addicted to traditional formalism and to\r\nelaborate terminology. Concrete suggestions arising from past\r\nexperiences, developed and matured in the light of the needs and\r\ndeficiencies of the present, employed as aims\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_96\" id=\"Page_96\"\u003e[Pg 96]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e and methods of specific\r\nreconstruction, and tested by success or failure in accomplishing this\r\ntask of readjustment, suffice. To such empirical suggestions used in\r\nconstructive fashion for new ends the name intelligence is given.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis recognition of the place of active and planning thought within the\r\nvery processes of experience radically alters the traditional status of\r\nthe technical problems of particular and universal, sense and reason,\r\nperceptual and conceptual. But the alteration is of much more than\r\ntechnical significance. For reason is experimental intelligence,\r\nconceived after the pattern of science, and used in the creation of\r\nsocial arts; it has something to do. It liberates man from the bondage\r\nof the past, due to ignorance and accident hardened into custom. It\r\nprojects a better future and assists man in its realization. And its\r\noperation is always subject to test in experience. The plans which are\r\nformed, the principles which man projects as guides of reconstructive\r\naction, are not dogmas. They are hypotheses to be worked out in\r\npractice, and to be rejected, corrected and expanded as they fail or\r\nsucceed in giving our present experience the guidance it requires. We\r\nmay call them programmes of action, but since they are to be used in\r\nmaking our future acts less blind, more directed, they are flexible.\r\nIntelligence is not something possessed once for all. It is in constant\r\nprocess of form\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_97\" id=\"Page_97\"\u003e[Pg 97]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003eing, and its retention requires constant alertness in\r\nobserving consequences, an open-minded will to learn and courage in\r\nre-adjustment.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast with this experimental and re-adjusting intelligence, it\r\nmust be said that Reason as employed by historic rationalism has tended\r\nto carelessness, conceit, irresponsibility, and rigidity\u0026mdash;in short\r\nabsolutism. A certain school of contemporary psychology uses the term\r\n\"rationalization\" to denote those mental mechanisms by which we\r\nunconsciously put a better face on our conduct or experience than facts\r\njustify. We excuse ourselves to ourselves by introducing a purpose and\r\norder into that of which we are secretly ashamed. In like fashion,\r\nhistoric rationalism has often tended to use Reason as an agency of\r\njustification and apologetics. It has taught that the defects and evils\r\nof actual experience disappear in the \"rational whole\" of things; that\r\nthings \u003ci\u003eappear\u003c/i\u003e evil merely because of the partial, incomplete nature of\r\nexperience. Or, as was noted by Bacon, \"reason\" assumes a false\r\nsimplicity, uniformity and universality, and opens for science a path of\r\nfictitious ease. This course results in intellectual irresponsibility\r\nand neglect:\u0026mdash;irresponsibility because rationalism assumes that the\r\nconcepts of reason are so self-sufficient and so far above experience\r\nthat they need and can secure no confirmation in experience. Neglect,\r\nbecause this same assumption makes men care\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_98\" id=\"Page_98\"\u003e[Pg 98]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003eless about concrete\r\nobservations and experiments. Contempt for experience has had a tragic\r\nrevenge \u003ci\u003ein\u003c/i\u003e experience; it has cultivated disregard for fact and this\r\ndisregard has been paid for in failure, sorrow and war.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe dogmatic rigidity of Rationalism is best seen in the consequences of\r\nKant\u0027s attempt to buttress an otherwise chaotic experience with pure\r\nconcepts. He set out with a laudable attempt at restricting the\r\nextravagant pretensions of Reason apart from experience. He called his\r\nphilosophy critical. But because he taught that the understanding\r\nemploys fixed, \u003ci\u003ea priori\u003c/i\u003e, concepts, in order to introduce connection\r\ninto experience and thereby make known \u003ci\u003eobjects\u003c/i\u003e possible (stable,\r\nregular relationships of qualities), he developed in German thought a\r\ncurious contempt for the living variety of experience and a curious\r\noverestimate of the value of system, order, regularity for their own\r\nsakes. More practical causes were at work in producing the peculiarly\r\nGerman regard for drill, discipline, \"order\" and docility.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eBut Kant\u0027s philosophy served to provide an intellectual justification or\r\n\"rationalization\" of subordination of individuals to fixed and\r\nready-made universal, \"principles,\" laws. Reason and law were held to be\r\nsynonyms. And as reason came into experience from without and above, so\r\nlaw had to come into life from some external and superior authority.\r\nThe\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_99\" id=\"Page_99\"\u003e[Pg 99]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e practical correlate to absolutism is rigidity, stiffness,\r\ninflexibility of disposition. When Kant taught that some conceptions,\r\nand these the important ones, are \u003ci\u003ea priori\u003c/i\u003e, that they do not arise in\r\nexperience and cannot be verified or tested in experience, that without\r\nsuch ready-made injections into experience the latter is anarchic and\r\nchaotic, he fostered the spirit of absolutism, even though technically\r\nhe denied the possibility of absolutes. His successors were true to his\r\nspirit rather than his letter, and so they taught absolutism\r\nsystematically. That the Germans with all their scientific competency\r\nand technological proficiency should have fallen into their tragically\r\nrigid and \"superior\" style of thought and action (tragic because\r\ninvolving them in inability to understand the world in which they lived)\r\nis a sufficient lesson of what may be involved in a systematical denial\r\nof the experimental character of intelligence and its conceptions.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eBy common consent, the effect of English empiricism was sceptical where\r\nthat of German rationalism was apologetic; it undermined where the\r\nlatter justified. It detected accidental associations formed into\r\ncustoms under the influence of self- or class-interest where German\r\nrational-idealism discovered profound meanings due to the necessary\r\nevolution of absolute reason. The modern world has suffered because in\r\nso many matters philosophy has offered it only an arbitrary choice\r\nbe\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_100\" id=\"Page_100\"\u003e[Pg 100]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003etween hard and fast opposities: Disintegrating analysis \u003ci\u003eor\u003c/i\u003e rigid\r\nsynthesis; complete radicalism neglecting and attacking the historic\r\npast as trivial and harmful, \u003ci\u003eor\u003c/i\u003e complete conservatism idealizing\r\ninstitutions as embodiments of eternal reason; a resolution of\r\nexperience into atomic elements that afford no support to stable\r\norganization \u003ci\u003eor\u003c/i\u003e a clamping down of all experience by fixed categories\r\nand necessary concepts\u0026mdash;these are the alternatives that conflicting\r\nschools have presented.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThey are the logical consequences of the traditional opposition of Sense\r\nand Thought, Experience and Reason. Common sense has refused to follow\r\nboth theories to their ultimate logic, and has fallen back on faith,\r\nintuition or the exigencies of practical compromise. But common sense\r\ntoo often has been confused and hampered instead of enlightened and\r\ndirected by the philosophies proffered it by professional intellectuals.\r\nMen who are thrown back upon \"common sense\" when they appeal to\r\nphilosophy for some general guidance are likely to fall back on routine,\r\nthe force of some personality, strong leadership or on the pressure of\r\nmomentary circumstances. It would be difficult to estimate the harm that\r\nhas resulted because the liberal and progressive movement of the\r\neighteenth and earlier nineteenth centuries had no method of\r\nintellectual articulation commensurate with its practical aspirations.\r\nIts\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_101\" id=\"Page_101\"\u003e[Pg 101]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e heart was in the right place. It was humane and social in\r\nintention. But it had no theoretical instrumentalities of constructive\r\npower. Its head was sadly deficient. Too often the logical import of its\r\nprofessed doctrines was almost anti-social in their atomistic\r\nindividualism, anti-human in devotion to brute sensation. This\r\ndeficiency played into the hands of the reactionary and obscurantist.\r\nThe strong point of the appeal to fixed principles transcending\r\nexperience, to dogmas incapable of experimental verification, the strong\r\npoint of reliance upon \u003ci\u003ea priori\u003c/i\u003e canons of truth and standards of\r\nmorals in opposition to dependence upon fruits and consequences in\r\nexperience, has been the unimaginative conception of experience which\r\nprofessed philosophic empiricists have entertained and taught.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eA philosophic reconstruction which should relieve men of having to\r\nchoose between an impoverished and truncated experience on one hand and\r\nan artificial and impotent reason on the other would relieve human\r\neffort from the heaviest intellectual burden it has to carry. It would\r\ndestroy the division of men of good will into two hostile camps. It\r\nwould permit the co-operation of those who respect the past and the\r\ninstitutionally established with those who are interested in\r\nestablishing a freer and happier future. For it would determine the\r\nconditions under which the funded experience of the past and the\r\ncontriving intelligence which looks to the\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_102\" id=\"Page_102\"\u003e[Pg 102]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e future can effectually\r\ninteract with each other. It would enable men to glorify the claims of\r\nreason without at the same time falling into a paralyzing worship of\r\nsuper-empirical authority or into an offensive \"rationalization\" of\r\nthings as they are.\u003c/p\u003e\u003chr class=\"chap\" /\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_103\" id=\"Page_103\"\u003e[Pg 103]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"CHAPTER_V\" id=\"CHAPTER_V\"\u003eCHAPTER V\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003eCHANGED CONCEPTIONS OF THE IDEAL AND THE REAL\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt has been noted that human experience is made human through the\r\nexistence of associations and recollections, which are strained through\r\nthe mesh of imagination so as to suit the demands of the emotions. A\r\nlife that is humanly interesting is, short of the results of discipline,\r\na life in which the tedium of vacant leisure is filled with images that\r\nexcite and satisfy. It is in this sense that poetry preceded prose in\r\nhuman experience, religion antedated science, and ornamental and\r\ndecorative art while it could not take the place of utility early\r\nreached a development out of proportion to the practical arts. In order\r\nto give contentment and delight, in order to feed present emotion and\r\ngive the stream of conscious life intensity and color, the suggestions\r\nwhich spring from past experiences are worked over so as to smooth out\r\ntheir unpleasantnesses and enhance their enjoyableness. Some\r\npsychologists claim that there is what they call a natural tendency to\r\nobliviscence of the disagreeable\u0026mdash;that men turn from the unpleasant in\r\nthought and recollection as they do\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_104\" id=\"Page_104\"\u003e[Pg 104]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e from the obnoxious in action. Every\r\nserious-minded person knows that a large part of the effort required in\r\nmoral discipline consists in the courage needed to acknowledge the\r\nunpleasant consequences of one\u0027s past and present acts. We squirm,\r\ndodge, evade, disguise, cover up, find excuses and palliations\u0026mdash;anything\r\nto render the mental scene less uncongenial. In short, the tendency of\r\nspontaneous suggestion is to idealize experience, to give it in\r\nconsciousness qualities which it does not have in actuality. Time and\r\nmemory are true artists; they remould reality nearer to the heart\u0027s\r\ndesire.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs imagination becomes freer and less controlled by concrete\r\nactualities, the idealizing tendency takes further flights unrestrained\r\nby the rein of the prosaic world. The things most emphasized in\r\nimagination as it reshapes experience are things which are absent in\r\nreality. In the degree in which life is placid and easy, imagination is\r\nsluggish and bovine. In the degree in which life is uneasy and troubled,\r\nfancy is stirred to frame pictures of a contrary state of things. By\r\nreading the characteristic features of any man\u0027s castles in the air you\r\ncan make a shrewd guess as to his underlying desires which are\r\nfrustrated. What is difficulty and disappointment in real life becomes\r\nconspicuous achievement and triumph in revery; what is negative in fact\r\nwill be positive in the image drawn by fancy; what\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_105\" id=\"Page_105\"\u003e[Pg 105]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is vexation in\r\nconduct will be compensated for in high relief in idealizing\r\nimagination.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThese considerations apply beyond mere personal psychology. They are\r\ndecisive for one of the most marked traits of classic philosophy:\u0026mdash;its\r\nconception of an ultimate supreme Reality which is essentially ideal in\r\nnature. Historians have more than once drawn an instructive parallel\r\nbetween the developed Olympian Pantheon of Greek religion and the Ideal\r\nRealm of Platonic philosophy. The gods, whatever their origin and\r\noriginal traits, became idealized projections of the selected and\r\nmatured achievements which the Greeks admired among their mortal selves.\r\nThe gods were like mortals, but mortals living only the lives which men\r\nwould wish to live, with power intensified, beauty perfected, and wisdom\r\nripened. When Aristotle criticized the theory of Ideas of his master,\r\nPlato, by saying that the Ideas were after all only things of sense\r\neternalized, he pointed out in effect the parallelism of philosophy with\r\nreligion and art to which allusion has just been made. And save for\r\nmatters of merely technical import, is it not possible to say of\r\nAristotle\u0027s Forms just what he said of Plato\u0027s Ideas? What are they,\r\nthese Forms and Essences which so profoundly influenced for centuries\r\nthe course of science and theology, save the objects of ordinary\r\nexperience with their blemishes removed, their imperfections eliminated,\r\ntheir lacks\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_106\" id=\"Page_106\"\u003e[Pg 106]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e rounded out, their suggestions and hints fulfilled? What\r\nare they in short but the objects of familiar life divinized because\r\nreshaped by the idealizing imagination to meet the demands of desire in\r\njust those respects in which actual experience is disappointing?\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThat Plato, and Aristotle in somewhat different fashion, and Plotinus\r\nand Marcus Aurelius and Saint Thomas Aquinas, and Spinoza and Hegel all\r\ntaught that Ultimate Reality is either perfectly Ideal and Rational in\r\nnature, or else has absolute ideality and rationality as its necessary\r\nattribute, are facts well known to the student of philosophy. They need\r\nno exposition here. But it is worth pointing out that these great\r\nsystematic philosophies defined perfect Ideality in conceptions that\r\nexpress the opposite of those things which make life unsatisfactory and\r\ntroublesome. What is the chief source of the complaint of poet and\r\nmoralist with the goods, the values and satisfactions of experience?\r\nRarely is the complaint that such things do not exist; it is that\r\nalthough existing they are momentary, transient, fleeting. They do not\r\nstay; at worst they come only to annoy and tease with their hurried and\r\ndisappearing taste of what might be; at best they come only to inspire\r\nand instruct with a passing hint of truer reality. This commonplace of\r\nthe poet and moralist as to the impermanence not only of sensuous\r\nenjoyment, but of fame and civic achievements was profoundly\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_107\" id=\"Page_107\"\u003e[Pg 107]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e reflected\r\nupon by philosophers, especially by Plato and Aristotle. The results of\r\ntheir thinking have been wrought into the very fabric of western ideas.\r\nTime, change, movement are signs that what the Greeks called Non-Being\r\nsomehow infect true Being. The phraseology is now strange, but many a\r\nmodern who ridicules the conception of Non-Being repeats the same\r\nthought under the name of the Finite or Imperfect.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWherever there is change, there is instability, and instability is proof\r\nof something the matter, of absence, deficiency, incompleteness. These\r\nare the ideas common to the connection between change, becoming and\r\nperishing, and Non-Being, finitude and imperfection. Hence complete and\r\ntrue Reality must be changeless, unalterable, so full of Being that it\r\nalways and forever maintains itself in fixed rest and repose. As\r\nBradley, the most dialectially ingenious Absolutist of our own day,\r\nexpresses the doctrine \"Nothing that is perfectly real moves.\" And while\r\nPlato took, comparatively speaking, a pessimistic view of change as mere\r\nlapse and Aristotle a complacent view of it as tendency to realization,\r\nyet Aristotle doubted no more than Plato that the fully realized\r\nreality, the divine and ultimate, is changeless. Though it is called\r\nActivity or Energy, the Activity knew no change, the energy did nothing.\r\nIt was the activity of an army forever marking time and never going\r\nanywhere.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_108\" id=\"Page_108\"\u003e[Pg 108]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eFrom this contrast of the permanent with the transient arise other\r\nfeatures which mark off the Ultimate Reality from the imperfect\r\nrealities of practical life. Where there is change, there is of\r\nnecessity numerical plurality, multiplicity, and from variety comes\r\nopposition, strife. Change is alteration, or \"othering\" and this means\r\ndiversity. Diversity means division, and division means two sides and\r\ntheir conflict. The world which is transient \u003ci\u003emust\u003c/i\u003e be a world of\r\ndiscord, for in lacking stability it lacks the government of unity. Did\r\nunity completely rule, these would remain an unchanging totality. What\r\nalters has parts and partialities which, not recognizing the rule of\r\nunity, assert themselves independently and make life a scene of\r\ncontention and discord. Ultimate and true Being on the other hand, since\r\nit is changeless is Total, All-Comprehensive and One. Since it is One,\r\nit knows only harmony, and therefore enjoys complete and eternal Good.\r\nIt \u003ci\u003eis\u003c/i\u003e Perfection.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eDegrees of knowledge and truth correspond with degrees of reality point\r\nby point. The higher and more complete the Reality the truer and more\r\nimportant the knowledge that refers to it. Since the world of becoming,\r\nof origins and perishings, is deficient in true Being, it cannot be\r\nknown in the best sense. To know it means to neglect its flux and\r\nalteration and discover some permanent form which limits the processes\r\nthat\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_109\" id=\"Page_109\"\u003e[Pg 109]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e alter in time. The acorn undergoes a series of changes; these are\r\nknowable only in reference to the fixed form of the oak which is the\r\nsame in the entire oak species in spite of the numerical diversity of\r\ntrees. Moreover, this form limits the flux of growth at both ends, the\r\nacorn coming from the oak as well as passing into it. Where such\r\nunifying and limiting eternal forms cannot be detected, there is mere\r\naimless variation and fluctuation, and knowledge is out of the question.\r\nOn the other hand, as objects are approached in which there is no\r\nmovement at all, knowledge becomes really demonstrative, certain,\r\nperfect\u0026mdash;truth pure and unalloyed. The heavens can be more truly known\r\nthan the earth, God the unmoved mover than the heavens.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eFrom this fact follows the superiority of contemplative to practical\r\nknowledge, of pure theoretical speculation to experimentation, and to\r\nany kind of knowing that depends upon changes in things or that induces\r\nchange in them. Pure knowing is pure beholding, viewing, noting. It is\r\ncomplete in itself. It looks for nothing beyond itself; it lacks nothing\r\nand hence has no aim or purpose. It is most emphatically its own excuse\r\nfor being. Indeed, pure contemplative knowing is so much the most truly\r\nself-enclosed and self-sufficient thing in the universe that it is the\r\nhighest and indeed the only attribute that can be ascribed to God, the\r\nHighest Being in the scale of Being. Man himself is\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_110\" id=\"Page_110\"\u003e[Pg 110]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e divine in the rare\r\nmoments when he attains to purely self-sufficient theoretical insight.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast with such knowing, the so-called knowing of the artisan is\r\nbase. He has to bring about changes in things, in wood and stone, and\r\nthis fact is of itself evidence that his material is deficient in Being.\r\nWhat condemns his knowledge even more is the fact that it is not\r\ndisinterestedly for its own sake. It has reference to results to be\r\nattained, food, clothing, shelter, etc. It is concerned with things that\r\nperish, the body and its needs. It thus has an ulterior aim, and one\r\nwhich itself testifies to imperfection. For want, desire, affection of\r\nevery sort, indicate lack. Where there is need and desire\u0026mdash;as in the\r\ncase of all practical knowledge and activity\u0026mdash;there is incompleteness\r\nand insufficiency. While civic or political and moral knowledge rank\r\nhigher than do the conceptions of the artisan, yet intrinsically\r\nconsidered they are a low and untrue type. Moral and political action is\r\npractical; that is, it implies needs and effort to satisfy them. It has\r\nan end beyond itself. Moreover, the very fact of association shows lack\r\nof self-sufficiency; it shows dependence upon others. Pure knowing is\r\nalone solitary, and capable of being carried on in complete,\r\nself-sufficing independence.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn short, the measure of the worth of knowledge according to Aristotle,\r\nwhose views are here summarized, is the degree in which it is purely\r\ncontemplative. The\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_111\" id=\"Page_111\"\u003e[Pg 111]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e highest degree is attained in knowing ultimate Ideal\r\nBeing, pure Mind. This is Ideal, the Form of Forms, because it has no\r\nlacks, no needs, and experiences no change or variety. It has no desires\r\nbecause in it all desires are consummated. Since it is perfect Being, it\r\nis perfect Mind and perfect Bliss;\u0026mdash;the acme of rationality and\r\nideality. One point more and the argument is completed. The kind of\r\nknowing that concerns itself with this ultimate reality (which is also\r\nultimate ideality) is philosophy. Philosophy is therefore the last and\r\nhighest term in pure contemplation. Whatever may be said for any other\r\nkind of knowledge, philosophy is self-enclosed. It has nothing to do\r\nbeyond itself; it has no aim or purpose or function\u0026mdash;except to be\r\nphilosophy\u0026mdash;that is, pure, self-sufficing beholding of ultimate reality.\r\nThere is of course such a thing as philosophic \u003ci\u003estudy\u003c/i\u003e which falls short\r\nof this perfection. Where there is learning, there is change and\r\nbecoming. But the function of study and learning of philosophy is, as\r\nPlato put it, to convert the eye of the soul from dwelling contentedly\r\nupon the images of things, upon the inferior realities that are born and\r\nthat decay, and to lead it to the intuition of supernal and eternal\r\nBeing. Thus the mind of the knower is transformed. It becomes\r\nassimilated to what it knows.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThrough a variety of channels, especially Neo-Platonism and St.\r\nAugustine, these ideas found their\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_112\" id=\"Page_112\"\u003e[Pg 112]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e way into Christian theology; and\r\ngreat scholastic thinkers taught that the end of man is to know True\r\nBeing, that knowledge is contemplative, that True Being is pure\r\nImmaterial Mind, and to know it is Bliss and Salvation. While this\r\nknowledge cannot be achieved in this stage of life nor without\r\nsupernatural aid, yet so far as it is accomplished it assimilates the\r\nhuman mind to the divine essence and so constitutes salvation. Through\r\nthis taking over of the conception of knowledge as Contemplative into\r\nthe dominant religion of Europe, multitudes were affected who were\r\ntotally innocent of theoretical philosophy. There was bequeathed to\r\ngenerations of thinkers as an unquestioned axiom the idea that knowledge\r\nis intrinsically a mere beholding or viewing of reality\u0026mdash;the spectator\r\nconception of knowledge. So deeply engrained was this idea that it\r\nprevailed for centuries after the actual progress of science had\r\ndemonstrated that knowledge is power to transform the world, and\r\ncenturies after the practice of effective knowledge had adopted the\r\nmethod of experimentation.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eLet us turn abruptly from this conception of the measure of true\r\nknowledge and the nature of true philosophy to the existing practice of\r\nknowledge. Nowadays if a man, say a physicist or chemist, wants to know\r\nsomething, the last thing he does is merely to contemplate. He does not\r\nlook in however earnest and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_113\" id=\"Page_113\"\u003e[Pg 113]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e prolonged way upon the object expecting\r\nthat thereby he will detect its fixed and characteristic form. He does\r\nnot expect any amount of such aloof scrutiny to reveal to him any\r\nsecrets. He proceeds to \u003ci\u003edo\u003c/i\u003e something, to bring some energy to bear\r\nupon the substance to see how it reacts; he places it under unusual\r\nconditions in order to induce some change. While the astronomer cannot\r\nchange the remote stars, even he no longer merely gazes. If he cannot\r\nchange the stars themselves, he can at least by lens and prism change\r\ntheir light as it reaches the earth; he can lay traps for discovering\r\nchanges which would otherwise escape notice. Instead of taking an\r\nantagonistic attitude toward change and denying it to the stars because\r\nof their divinity and perfection, he is on constant and alert watch to\r\nfind some change through which he can form an inference as to the\r\nformation of stars and systems of stars.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eChange in short is no longer looked upon as a fall from grace, as a\r\nlapse from reality or a sign of imperfection of Being. Modern science no\r\nlonger tries to find some fixed form or essence behind each process of\r\nchange. Rather, the experimental method tries to break down apparent\r\nfixities and to induce changes. The form that remains unchanged to\r\nsense, the form of seed or tree, is regarded not as the key to knowledge\r\nof the thing, but as a wall, an obstruction to be broken down.\r\nConsequently the scientific man experiments with\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_114\" id=\"Page_114\"\u003e[Pg 114]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e this and that agency\r\napplied to this and that condition until something begins to happen;\r\nuntil there is, as we say, something doing. He assumes that there is\r\nchange going on all the time, that there is movement within each thing\r\nin seeming repose; and that since the process is veiled from perception\r\nthe way to know it is to bring the thing into novel circumstances until\r\nchange becomes evident. In short, the thing which is to be accepted and\r\npaid heed to is not what is originally given but that which emerges\r\nafter the thing has been set under a great variety of circumstances in\r\norder to see how it behaves.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eNow this marks a much more general change in the human attitude than\r\nperhaps appears at first sight. It signifies nothing less than that the\r\nworld or any part of it as it presents itself at a given time is\r\naccepted or acquiesced in only as \u003ci\u003ematerial\u003c/i\u003e for change. It is accepted\r\nprecisely as the carpenter, say, accepts things as he finds them. If he\r\ntook them as things to be observed and noted for their own sake, he\r\nnever would be a carpenter. He would observe, describe, record the\r\nstructures, forms and changes which things exhibit to him, and leave the\r\nmatter there. If perchance some of the changes going on should present\r\nhim with a shelter, so much the better. But what makes the carpenter a\r\n\u003ci\u003ebuilder\u003c/i\u003e is the fact that he notes things not just as objects in\r\nthemselves, but with reference to what he\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_115\" id=\"Page_115\"\u003e[Pg 115]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e wants to do to them and with\r\nthem; to the end he has in mind. Fitness to effect certain special\r\nchanges that he wishes to see accomplished is what concerns him in the\r\nwood and stones and iron which he observes. His attention is directed to\r\nthe changes they undergo and the changes they make other things undergo\r\nso that he may select that combination of changes which will yield him\r\nhis desired result. It is only by these processes of active manipulation\r\nof things in order to realize his purpose that he discovers what the\r\nproperties of things are. If he foregoes his own purpose and in the name\r\nof a meek and humble subscription to things as they \"really are\" refuses\r\nto bend things as they \"are\" to his own purpose, he not only never\r\nachieves his purpose but he never learns what the things themselves are.\r\nThey \u003ci\u003eare\u003c/i\u003e what they can do and what can be done with them,\u0026mdash;things that\r\ncan be found by deliberate trying.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe outcome of this idea of the right way to know is a profound\r\nmodification in man\u0027s attitude toward the natural world. Under differing\r\nsocial conditions, the older or classic conception sometimes bred\r\nresignation and submission; sometimes contempt and desire to escape;\r\nsometimes, notably in the case of the Greeks, a keen esthetic curiosity\r\nwhich showed itself in acute noting of all the traits of given objects.\r\nIn fact, the whole conception of knowledge as beholding and noting is\r\nfundamentally an idea connected with esthetic enjoy\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_116\" id=\"Page_116\"\u003e[Pg 116]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003ement and\r\nappreciation where the environment is beautiful and life is serene, and\r\nwith esthetic repulsion and depreciation where life is troubled, nature\r\nmorose and hard. But in the degree in which the active conception of\r\nknowledge prevails, and the environment is regarded as something that\r\nhas to be changed in order to be truly known, men are imbued with\r\ncourage, with what may almost be termed an aggressive attitude toward\r\nnature. The latter becomes plastic, something to be subjected to human\r\nuses. The moral disposition toward change is deeply modified. This loses\r\nits pathos, it ceases to be haunted with melancholy through suggesting\r\nonly decay and loss. Change becomes significant of new possibilities and\r\nends to be attained; it becomes prophetic of a better future. Change is\r\nassociated with progress rather than with lapse and fall. Since changes\r\nare going on anyway, the great thing is to learn enough about them so\r\nthat we be able to lay hold of them and turn them in the direction of\r\nour desires. Conditions and events are neither to be fled from nor\r\npassively acquiesced in; they are to be utilized and directed. They are\r\neither obstacles to our ends or else means for their accomplishment. In\r\na profound sense knowing ceases to be contemplative and becomes\r\npractical.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eUnfortunately men, educated men, cultivated men in particular, are still\r\nso dominated by the older conception of an aloof and self-sufficing\r\nreason and knowledge\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_117\" id=\"Page_117\"\u003e[Pg 117]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e that they refuse to perceive the import of this\r\ndoctrine. They think they are sustaining the cause of impartial,\r\nthorough-going and disinterested reflection when they maintain the\r\ntraditional philosophy of intellectualism\u0026mdash;that is, of knowing as\r\nsomething self-sufficing and self-enclosed. But in truth, historic\r\nintellectualism, the spectator view of knowledge, is a purely\r\ncompensatory doctrine which men of an intellectual turn have built up to\r\nconsole themselves for the actual and social impotency of the calling of\r\nthought to which they are devoted. Forbidden by conditions and held back\r\nby lack of courage from making their knowledge a factor in the\r\ndetermination of the course of events, they have sought a refuge of\r\ncomplacency in the notion that knowing is something too sublime to be\r\ncontaminated by contact with things of change and practice. They have\r\ntransformed knowing into a morally irresponsible estheticism. The true\r\nimport of the doctrine of the operative or practical character of\r\nknowing, of intelligence, is objective. It means that the structures and\r\nobjects which science and philosophy set up in contrast to the things\r\nand events of concrete daily experience do not constitute a realm apart\r\nin which rational contemplation may rest satisfied; it means that they\r\nrepresent the selected obstacles, material means and ideal methods of\r\ngiving direction to that change which is bound to occur anyway.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_118\" id=\"Page_118\"\u003e[Pg 118]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis change of human disposition toward the world does not mean that man\r\nceases to have ideals, or ceases to be primarily a creature of the\r\nimagination. But it does signify a radical change in the character and\r\nfunction of the ideal realm which man shapes for himself. In the classic\r\nphilosophy, the ideal world is essentially a haven in which man finds\r\nrest from the storms of life; it is an asylum in which he takes refuge\r\nfrom the troubles of existence with the calm assurance that it alone is\r\nsupremely real. When the belief that knowledge is active and operative\r\ntakes hold of men, the ideal realm is no longer something aloof and\r\nseparate; it is rather that collection of imagined possibilities that\r\nstimulates men to new efforts and realizations. It still remains true\r\nthat the troubles which men undergo are the forces that lead them to\r\nproject pictures of a better state of things. But the picture of the\r\nbetter is shaped so that it may become an instrumentality of action,\r\nwhile in the classic view the Idea belongs ready-made in a noumenal\r\nworld. Hence, it is only an object of personal aspiration or\r\nconsolation, while to the modern, an idea is a suggestion of something\r\nto be done or of a way of doing.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAn illustration will, perhaps, make the difference clear. Distance is an\r\nobstacle, a source of trouble. It separates friends and prevents\r\nintercourse. It isolates, and makes contact and mutual understanding\r\ndifficult.\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_119\" id=\"Page_119\"\u003e[Pg 119]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e This state of affairs provokes discontent and restlessness;\r\nit excites the imagination to construct pictures of a state of things\r\nwhere human intercourse is not injuriously affected by space. Now there\r\nare two ways out. One way is to pass from a mere dream of some heavenly\r\nrealm in which distance is abolished and by some magic all friends are\r\nin perpetual transparent communication, to pass, I say, from some idle\r\ncastle-building to philosophic reflection. Space, distance, it will then\r\nbe argued, is merely phenomenal; or, in a more modern version,\r\nsubjective. It is not, metaphysically speaking, real. Hence the\r\nobstruction and trouble it gives is not after all \"real\" in the\r\nmetaphysical sense of reality. Pure minds, pure spirits, do not live in\r\na space world; for them distance is not. Their relationships in the true\r\nworld are not in any way affected by special considerations. Their\r\nintercommunication is direct, fluent, unobstructed.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eDoes the illustration involve a caricature of ways of philosophizing\r\nwith which we are all familiar? But if it is not an absurd caricature,\r\ndoes it not suggest that much of what philosophies have taught about the\r\nideal and noumenal or superiorly real world, is after all, only casting\r\na dream into an elaborate dialectic form through the use of a speciously\r\nscientific terminology? Practically, the difficulty, the trouble,\r\nremains. Practically, however it may be \"metaphysically,\" space is\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_120\" id=\"Page_120\"\u003e[Pg 120]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nstill real:\u0026mdash;it acts in a definite objectionable way. Again, man dreams\r\nof some better state of things. From troublesome fact he takes refuge in\r\nfantasy. But this time, the refuge does not remain a permanent and\r\nremote asylum.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe idea becomes a standpoint from which to examine existing occurrences\r\nand to see if there is not among them something which gives a hint of\r\nhow communication at a distance can be effected, something to be\r\nutilized as a medium of speech at long range. The suggestion or fancy\r\nthough still ideal is treated as a possibility capable of realization\r\n\u003ci\u003ein\u003c/i\u003e the concrete natural world, not as a superior reality apart from\r\nthat world. As such, it becomes a platform from which to scrutinize\r\nnatural events. Observed from the point of view of this possibility,\r\nthings disclose properties hitherto undetected. In the light of these\r\nascertainments, the idea of some agency for speech at a distance becomes\r\nless vague and floating: it takes on positive form. This action and\r\nreaction goes on. The possibility or idea is employed as a method for\r\nobserving actual existence; and in the light of what is discovered the\r\npossibility takes on concrete existence. It becomes less of a mere idea,\r\na fancy, a wished-for possibility, and more of an actual fact. Invention\r\nproceeds, and at last we have the telegraph, the telephone, first\r\nthrough wires, and then with no artificial medium. The concrete\r\nenviron\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_121\" id=\"Page_121\"\u003e[Pg 121]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003ement is transformed in the desired direction; it is idealized in\r\nfact and not merely in fancy. The ideal is realized through its own use\r\nas a tool or method of inspection, experimentation, selection and\r\ncombination of concrete natural operations.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eLet us pause to take stock of results. The division of the world into\r\ntwo kinds of Being, one superior, accessible only to reason and ideal in\r\nnature, the other inferior, material, changeable, empirical, accessible\r\nto sense-observation, turns inevitably into the idea that knowledge is\r\ncontemplative in nature. It assumes a contrast between theory and\r\npractice which was all to the disadvantage of the latter. But in the\r\nactual course of the development of science, a tremendous change has\r\ncome about. When the practice of knowledge ceased to be dialectical and\r\nbecame experimental, knowing became preoccupied with changes and the\r\ntest of knowledge became the ability to bring about certain changes.\r\nKnowing, for the experimental sciences, means a certain kind of\r\nintelligently conducted doing; it ceases to be contemplative and becomes\r\nin a true sense practical. Now this implies that philosophy, unless it\r\nis to undergo a complete break with the authorized spirit of science,\r\nmust also alter its nature. It must assume a practical nature; it must\r\nbecome operative and experimental. And we have pointed out what an\r\nenormous change this transformation of philosophy entails in the two\r\ncon\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_122\" id=\"Page_122\"\u003e[Pg 122]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003eceptions which have played the greatest rôle in historic\r\nphilosophizing\u0026mdash;the conceptions of the \"real\" and \"ideal\" respectively.\r\nThe former ceases to be something ready-made and final; it becomes that\r\nwhich has to be accepted as the material of change, as the obstructions\r\nand the means of certain specific desired changes. The ideal and\r\nrational also ceased to be a separate ready-made world incapable of\r\nbeing used as a lever to transform the actual empirical world, a mere\r\nasylum from empirical deficiencies. They represent intelligently\r\nthought-out possibilities \u003ci\u003eof\u003c/i\u003e the existent world which may be used as\r\nmethods for making over and improving it.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003ePhilosophically speaking, this is the great difference involved in the\r\nchange from knowledge and philosophy as contemplative to operative. The\r\nchange does not mean the lowering in dignity of philosophy from a lofty\r\nplane to one of gross utilitarianism. It signifies that the prime\r\nfunction of philosophy is that of rationalizing the \u003ci\u003epossibilities\u003c/i\u003e of\r\nexperience, especially collective human experience. The scope of this\r\nchange may be realized by considering how far we are from accomplishing\r\nit. In spite of inventions which enable men to use the energies of\r\nnature for their purposes, we are still far from habitually treating\r\nknowledge as the method of active control of nature and of experience.\r\nWe tend to think of it after the model of a spectator viewing a finished\r\npicture rather than after that of the artist\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_123\" id=\"Page_123\"\u003e[Pg 123]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e producing the painting.\r\nThus there arise all the questions of epistemology with which the\r\ntechnical student of philosophy is so familiar, and which have made\r\nmodern philosophy in especial so remote from the understanding of the\r\neveryday person and from the results and processes of science. For these\r\nquestions all spring from the assumption of a merely beholding mind on\r\none side and a foreign and remote object to be viewed and noted on the\r\nother. They ask how a mind and world, subject and object, so separate\r\nand independent can by any possibility come into such relationship to\r\neach other as to make true knowledge possible. If knowing were\r\nhabitually conceived of as active and operative, after the analogy of\r\nexperiment guided by hypothesis, or of invention guided by the\r\nimagination of some possibility, it is not too much to say that the\r\nfirst effect would be to emancipate philosophy from all the\r\nepistemological puzzles which now perplex it. For these all arise from a\r\nconception of the relation of mind and world, subject and object, in\r\nknowing, which assumes that to know is to seize upon what is already in\r\nexistence.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eModern philosophic thought has been so preoccupied with these puzzles of\r\nepistemology and the disputes between realist and idealist, between\r\nphenomenalist and absolutist, that many students are at a loss to know\r\nwhat would be left for philosophy if there were removed\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_124\" id=\"Page_124\"\u003e[Pg 124]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e both the\r\nmetaphysical task of distinguishing between the noumenal and phenomenal\r\nworlds and the epistemological task of telling how a separate subject\r\ncan know an independent object. But would not the elimination of these\r\ntraditional problems permit philosophy to devote itself to a more\r\nfruitful and more needed task? Would it not encourage philosophy to face\r\nthe great social and moral defects and troubles from which humanity\r\nsuffers, to concentrate its attention upon clearing up the causes and\r\nexact nature of these evils and upon developing a clear idea of better\r\nsocial possibilities; in short upon projecting an idea or ideal which,\r\ninstead of expressing the notion of another world or some far-away\r\nunrealizable goal, would be used as a method of understanding and\r\nrectifying specific social ills?\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis is a vague statement. But note in the first place that such a\r\nconception of the proper province of philosophy where it is released\r\nfrom vain metaphysics and idle epistemology is in line with the origin\r\nof philosophy sketched in the first hour. And in the second place, note\r\nhow contemporary society, the world over, is in need of more general and\r\nfundamental enlightenment and guidance than it now possesses. I have\r\ntried to show that a radical change of the conception of knowledge from\r\ncontemplative to active is the inevitable result of the way in which\r\ninquiry and invention are now conducted. But in claiming this, it must\r\nalso be\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_125\" id=\"Page_125\"\u003e[Pg 125]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e conceded, or rather asserted, that so far the change has\r\ninfluenced for the most part only the more technical side of human life.\r\nThe sciences have created new industrial arts. Man\u0027s physical command of\r\nnatural energies has been indefinitely multiplied. There is control of\r\nthe sources of material wealth and prosperity. What would once have been\r\nmiracles are now daily performed with steam and coal and electricity and\r\nair, and with the human body. But there are few persons optimistic\r\nenough to declare that any similar command of the forces which control\r\nman\u0027s social and moral welfare has been achieved.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWhere is the moral progress that corresponds to our economic\r\naccomplishments? The latter is the direct fruit of the revolution that\r\nhas been wrought in physical science. But where is there a corresponding\r\nhuman science and art? Not only has the improvement in the method of\r\nknowing remained so far mainly limited to technical and economic\r\nmatters, but this progress has brought with it serious new moral\r\ndisturbances. I need only cite the late war, the problem of capital and\r\nlabor, the relation of economic classes, the fact that while the new\r\nscience has achieved wonders in medicine and surgery, it has also\r\nproduced and spread occasions for diseases and weaknesses. These\r\nconsiderations indicate to us how undeveloped are our politics, how\r\ncrude and primitive our education, how passive and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_126\" id=\"Page_126\"\u003e[Pg 126]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e inert our morals.\r\nThe causes remain which brought philosophy into existence as an attempt\r\nto find an intelligent substitute for blind custom and blind impulse as\r\nguides to life and conduct. The attempt has not been successfully\r\naccomplished. Is there not reason for believing that the release of\r\nphilosophy from its burden of sterile metaphysics and sterile\r\nepistemology instead of depriving philosophy of problems and\r\nsubject-matter would open a way to questions of the most perplexing and\r\nthe most significant sort?\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eLet me specify one problem quite directly suggested by certain points in\r\nthis lecture. It has been pointed out that the really fruitful\r\napplication of the contemplative idea was not in science but in the\r\nesthetic field. It is difficult to imagine any high development of the\r\nfine arts except where there is curious and loving interest in forms and\r\nmotions of the world quite irrespective of any use to which they may be\r\nput. And it is not too much to say that every people that has attained a\r\nhigh esthetic development has been a people in which the contemplative\r\nattitude has flourished\u0026mdash;as the Greek, the Hindoo, the medieval\r\nChristian. On the other hand, the scientific attitude that has actually\r\nproved itself in scientific progress is, as has been pointed out, a\r\npractical attitude. It takes forms as disguises for hidden processes.\r\nIts interest in change is in what it leads to, what can be done with it,\r\nto what use it can be put.\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_127\" id=\"Page_127\"\u003e[Pg 127]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e While it has brought nature under control,\r\nthere is something hard and aggressive in its attitude toward nature\r\nunfavorable to the esthetic enjoyment of the world. Surely there is no\r\nmore significant question before the world than this question of the\r\npossibility and method of reconciliation of the attitudes of practical\r\nscience and contemplative esthetic appreciation. Without the former, man\r\nwill be the sport and victim of natural forces which he cannot use or\r\ncontrol. Without the latter, mankind might become a race of economic\r\nmonsters, restlessly driving hard bargains with nature and with one\r\nanother, bored with leisure or capable of putting it to use only in\r\nostentatious display and extravagant dissipation.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eLike other moral questions, this matter is social and even political.\r\nThe western peoples advanced earlier on the path of experimental science\r\nand its applications in control of nature than the oriental. It is not,\r\nI suppose wholly fanciful, to believe that the latter have embodied in\r\ntheir habits of life more of the contemplative, esthetic and\r\nspeculatively religious temper, and the former more of the scientific,\r\nindustrial and practical. This difference and others which have grown up\r\naround it is one barrier to easy mutual understanding, and one source of\r\nmisunderstanding. The philosophy which, then, makes a serious effort to\r\ncomprehend these respective attitudes in their relation and due\r\nbalance,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_128\" id=\"Page_128\"\u003e[Pg 128]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e could hardly fail to promote the capacity of peoples to profit\r\nby one another\u0027s experience and to co-operate more effectually with one\r\nanother in the tasks of fruitful culture.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIndeed, it is incredible that the question of the relation of the \"real\"\r\nand the \"ideal\" should ever have been thought to be a problem belonging\r\ndistinctively to philosophy. The very fact that this most serious of all\r\nhuman issues has been taken possession of by philosophy is only another\r\nproof of the disasters that follow in the wake of regarding knowledge\r\nand intellect as something self-sufficient. Never have the \"real\" and\r\nthe \"ideal\" been so clamorous, so self-assertive, as at the present\r\ntime. And never in the history of the world have they been so far apart.\r\nThe world war was carried on for purely ideal ends:\u0026mdash;for humanity,\r\njustice and equal liberty for strong and weak alike. And it was carried\r\non by realistic means of applied science, by high explosives, and\r\nbombing airplanes and blockading marvels of mechanism that reduced the\r\nworld well nigh to ruin, so that the serious-minded are concerned for\r\nthe perpetuity of those choice values we call civilization. The peace\r\nsettlement is loudly proclaimed in the name of the ideals that stir\r\nman\u0027s deepest emotions, but with the most realistic attention to details\r\nof economic advantage distributed in proportion to physical power to\r\ncreate future disturbances.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_129\" id=\"Page_129\"\u003e[Pg 129]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt is not surprising that some men are brought to regard all idealism as\r\na mere smoke-screen behind which the search for material profit may be\r\nmore effectually carried on, and are converted to the materialistic\r\ninterpretation of history. \"Reality\" is then conceived as physical force\r\nand as sensations of power, profit and enjoyment; any politics that\r\ntakes account of other factors, save as elements of clever propaganda\r\nand for control of those human beings who have not become realistically\r\nenlightened, is based on illusions. But others are equally sure that the\r\nreal lesson of the war is that humanity took its first great wrong step\r\nwhen it entered upon a cultivation of physical science and an\r\napplication of the fruits of science to the improvement of the\r\ninstruments of life\u0026mdash;industry and commerce. They will sigh for the\r\nreturn of the day when, while the great mass died as they were born in\r\nanimal fashion, the few elect devoted themselves not to science and the\r\nmaterial decencies and comforts of existence but to \"ideal\" things, the\r\nthings of the spirit.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eYet the most obvious conclusion would seem to be the impotency and the\r\nharmfulness of any and every ideal that is proclaimed wholesale and in\r\nthe abstract, that is, as something in itself apart from the detailed\r\nconcrete existences whose moving possibilities it embodies. The true\r\nmoral would seem to lie in enforcing the tragedy of that idealism which\r\nbelieves\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_130\" id=\"Page_130\"\u003e[Pg 130]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e in a spiritual world which exists in and by itself, and the\r\ntragic need for the most realistic study of forces and consequences, a\r\nstudy conducted in a more scientifically accurate and complete manner\r\nthan that of the professed \u003ci\u003eReal-politik\u003c/i\u003e. For it is not truly realistic\r\nor scientific to take short views, to sacrifice the future to immediate\r\npressure, to ignore facts and forces that are disagreeable and to\r\nmagnify the enduring quality of whatever falls in with immediate desire.\r\nIt is false that the evils of the situation arise from absence of\r\nideals; they spring from wrong ideals. And these wrong ideals have in\r\nturn their foundation in the absence in social matters of that methodic,\r\nsystematic, impartial, critical, searching inquiry into \"real\" and\r\noperative conditions which we call science and which has brought man in\r\nthe technical realm to the command of physical energies.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003ePhilosophy, let it be repeated, cannot \"solve\" the problem of the\r\nrelation of the ideal and the real. That is the standing problem of\r\nlife. But it can at least lighten the burden of humanity in dealing with\r\nthe problem by emancipating mankind from the errors which philosophy has\r\nitself fostered\u0026mdash;the existence of conditions which are real apart from\r\ntheir movement into something new and different, and the existence of\r\nideals, spirit and reason independent of the possibilities of the\r\nmaterial and physical. For as long\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_131\" id=\"Page_131\"\u003e[Pg 131]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e as humanity is committed to this\r\nradically false bias, it will walk forward with blinded eyes and bound\r\nlimbs. And philosophy can effect, if it will, something more than this\r\nnegative task. It can make it easier for mankind to take the right steps\r\nin action by making it clear that a sympathetic and integral\r\nintelligence brought to bear upon the observation and understanding of\r\nconcrete social events and forces, can form ideals, that is aims, which\r\nshall not be either illusions or mere emotional compensations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003chr class=\"chap\" /\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_132\" id=\"Page_132\"\u003e[Pg 132]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"CHAPTER_VI\" id=\"CHAPTER_VI\"\u003eCHAPTER VI\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003eTHE SIGNIFICANCE OF LOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eLogic\u0026mdash;like philosophy itself\u0026mdash;suffers from a curious oscillation. It is\r\nelevated into the supreme and legislative science only to fall into the\r\ntrivial estate of keeper of such statements as A is A and the scholastic\r\nverses for the syllogistic rules. It claims power to state the laws of\r\nthe ultimate structure of the universe, on the ground that it deals with\r\nthe laws of thought which are the laws according to which Reason has\r\nformed the world. Then it limits its pretensions to laws of correct\r\nreasoning which is correct even though it leads to no matter of fact, or\r\neven to material falsity. It is regarded by the modern objective\r\nidealist as the adequate substitute for ancient ontological metaphysics;\r\nbut others treat it as that branch of rhetoric which teaches proficiency\r\nin argumentation. For a time a superficial compromise equilibrium was\r\nmaintained wherein the logic of formal demonstration which the Middle\r\nAges extracted from Aristotle was supplemented by an inductive logic of\r\ndiscovery of truth that Mill extracted from the practice of scientific\r\nmen. But\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_133\" id=\"Page_133\"\u003e[Pg 133]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e students of German philosophy, of mathematics, and of\r\npsychology, no matter how much they attacked one another, have made\r\ncommon cause in attack upon the orthodox logics both of deductive proof\r\nand inductive discovery.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eLogical theory presents a scene of chaos. There is little agreement as\r\nto its subject-matter, scope or purpose. This disagreement is not formal\r\nor nominal but affects the treatment of every topic. Take such a\r\nrudimentary matter as the nature of judgment. Reputable authority can be\r\nquoted in behalf of every possible permutation of doctrine. Judgment is\r\nthe central thing in logic; and judgment is not logical at all, but\r\npersonal and psychological. If logical, it is the primary function to\r\nwhich both conception and inference are subordinate; and it is an\r\nafter-product from them. The distinction of subject and predicate is\r\nnecessary, and it is totally irrelevant; or again, though it is found in\r\nsome cases, it is not of great importance. Among those who hold that the\r\nsubject-predicate relationship is essential, some hold that judgment is\r\nan analysis of something prior into them, and others assert that it is a\r\nsynthesis of them into something else. Some hold that reality is always\r\nthe subject of judgment, and others that \"reality\" is logically\r\nirrelevant. Among those who deny that judgment is the attribution of\r\npredicate to subject, who regard it as a relation of elements,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_134\" id=\"Page_134\"\u003e[Pg 134]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e some\r\nhold that the relation is \"internal,\" some that it is \"external,\" and\r\nothers that it is sometimes one and sometimes the other.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eUnless logic is a matter of some practical account, these contrarieties\r\nare so numerous, so extensive, and so irreconcilable that they are\r\nludicrous. If logic is an affair of practical moment, then these\r\ninconsistencies are serious. They testify to some deep-lying cause of\r\nintellectual disagreement and incoherency. In fact, contemporary logical\r\ntheory is the ground upon which all philosophical differences and\r\ndisputes are gathered together and focussed. How does the modification\r\nin the traditional conception of the relation of experience and reason,\r\nthe real and ideal affect logic?\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt affects, in the first place, the nature of logic itself. If thought\r\nor intelligence is the means of intentional reconstruction of\r\nexperience, then logic, as an account of the procedure of thought, is\r\nnot purely formal. It is not confined to laws of formally correct\r\nreasoning apart from truth of subject-matter. Neither, on the contrary,\r\nis it concerned with the inherent thought structures of the universe, as\r\nHegel\u0027s logic would have it; nor with the successive approaches of human\r\nthought to this objective thought structure as the logic of Lotze,\r\nBosanquet, and other epistemological logicians would have it. If\r\nthinking is the way in which deliberate reorganization of experience is\r\nsecured, then logic is such\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_135\" id=\"Page_135\"\u003e[Pg 135]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e a clarified and systematized formulation of\r\nthe procedures of thinking as will enable the desired reconstruction to\r\ngo on more economically and efficiently. In language familiar to\r\nstudents, logic is both a science and an art; a science so far as it\r\ngives an organized and tested descriptive account of the way in which\r\nthought actually goes on; an art, so far as on the basis of this\r\ndescription it projects methods by which future thinking shall take\r\nadvantage of the operations that lead to success and avoid those which\r\nresult in failure.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThus is answered the dispute whether logic is empirical or normative,\r\npsychological or regulative. It is both. Logic is based on a definite\r\nand executive supply of empirical material. Men have been thinking for\r\nages. They have observed, inferred, and reasoned in all sorts of ways\r\nand to all kinds of results. Anthropology, the study of the origin of\r\nmyth, legend and cult; linguistics and grammar; rhetoric and former\r\nlogical compositions all tell us how men have thought and what have been\r\nthe purposes and consequences of different kinds of thinking.\r\nPsychology, experimental and pathological, makes important contributions\r\nto our knowledge of how thinking goes on and to what effect. Especially\r\ndoes the record of the growth of the various sciences afford instruction\r\nin those concrete ways of inquiry and testing which have led men astray\r\nand which have proved efficacious. Each science from mathematics to\r\nhistory\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_136\" id=\"Page_136\"\u003e[Pg 136]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e exhibits typical fallacious methods and typical efficacious\r\nmethods in special subject-matters. Logical theory has thus a large,\r\nalmost inexhaustible field of empirical study.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe conventional statement that experience only tells us how men have\r\nthought or \u003ci\u003edo\u003c/i\u003e think, while logic is concerned with norms, with how men\r\n\u003ci\u003eshould\u003c/i\u003e think, is ludicrously inept. Some sorts of thinking are shown\r\n\u003ci\u003eby\u003c/i\u003e experience to have got nowhere, or worse than nowhere\u0026mdash;into\r\nsystematized delusion and mistake. Others have proved in manifest\r\nexperience that they lead to fruitful and enduring discoveries. It is\r\nprecisely in experience that the different consequences of different\r\nmethods of investigation and ratiocination are convincingly shown. The\r\nparrot-like repetition of the distinction between an empirical\r\ndescription of what is and a normative account of what should be merely\r\nneglects the most striking fact about thinking as it empirically\r\nis\u0026mdash;namely, its flagrant exhibition of cases of failure and\r\nsuccess\u0026mdash;that is, of good thinking and bad thinking. Any one who\r\nconsiders this empirical manifestation will not complain of lack of\r\nmaterial from which to construct a \u003ci\u003eregulative\u003c/i\u003e art. The more study that\r\nis given to empirical records of actual thought, the more apparent\r\nbecomes the connection between the specific features of thinking which\r\nhave produced failure and success. Out of this relationship of cause and\r\neffect\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_137\" id=\"Page_137\"\u003e[Pg 137]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e as it is empirically ascertained grow the norms and regulations\r\nof an art of thinking.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eMathematics is often cited as an example of purely normative thinking\r\ndependent upon \u003ci\u003ea priori\u003c/i\u003e canons and supra-empirical material. But it is\r\nhard to see how the student who approaches the matter historically can\r\navoid the conclusion that the status of mathematics is as empirical as\r\nthat of metallurgy. Men began with counting and measuring things just as\r\nthey began with pounding and burning them. One thing, as common speech\r\nprofoundly has it, led to another. Certain ways were successful\u0026mdash;not\r\nmerely in the immediately practical sense, but in the sense of being\r\ninteresting, of arousing attention, of exciting attempts at improvement.\r\nThe present-day mathematical logician may present the structure of\r\nmathematics as if it had sprung all at once from the brain of a Zeus\r\nwhose anatomy is that of pure logic. But, nevertheless, this very\r\nstructure is a product of long historic growth, in which all kinds of\r\nexperiments have been tried, in which some men have struck out in this\r\ndirection and some in that, and in which some exercises and operations\r\nhave resulted in confusion and others in triumphant clarifications and\r\nfruitful growths; a history in which matter and methods have been\r\nconstantly selected and worked over on the basis of empirical success\r\nand failure.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe structure of alleged normative \u003ci\u003ea priori\u003c/i\u003e mathe\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_138\" id=\"Page_138\"\u003e[Pg 138]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003ematics is in truth\r\nthe crowned result of ages of toilsome experience. The metallurgist who\r\nshould write on the most highly developed method of dealing with ores\r\nwould not, in truth, proceed any differently. He too selects, refines,\r\nand organizes the methods which in the past have been found to yield the\r\nmaximum of achievement. Logic is a matter of profound human importance\r\nprecisely because it is empirically founded and experimentally applied.\r\nSo considered, the problem of logical theory is none other than the\r\nproblem of the possibility of the development and employment of\r\nintelligent method in inquiries concerned with deliberate reconstruction\r\nof experience. And it is only saying again in more specific form what\r\nhas been said in general form to add that while such a logic has been\r\ndeveloped in respect to mathematics and physical science, intelligent\r\nmethod, logic, is still far to seek in moral and political affairs.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAssuming, accordingly, this idea of logic without argument, let us\r\nproceed to discuss some of its chief features. First, light is thrown by\r\nthe \u003ci\u003eorigin\u003c/i\u003e of thinking upon a logic which shall be a method of\r\nintelligent guidance of experience. In line with what has already been\r\nsaid about experience being a matter primarily of behavior, a\r\nsensori-motor matter, is the fact that thinking takes its departure from\r\nspecific conflicts in experience that occasion perplexity and trouble.\r\nMen do not,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_139\" id=\"Page_139\"\u003e[Pg 139]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e in their natural estate, think when they have no troubles\r\nto cope with, no difficulties to overcome. A life of ease, of success\r\nwithout effort, would be a thoughtless life, and so also would a life of\r\nready omnipotence. Beings who think are beings whose life is so hemmed\r\nin and constricted that they cannot directly carry through a course of\r\naction to victorious consummation. Men also do not tend to think when\r\ntheir action, when they are amid difficulties, is dictated to them by\r\nauthority. Soldiers have difficulties and restrictions in plenty, but\r\n\u003ci\u003equa soldiers\u003c/i\u003e (as Aristotle would say) they are not notorious for being\r\nthinkers. Thinking is done for them, higher up. The same is too true of\r\nmost workingmen under present economic conditions. Difficulties occasion\r\nthinking only when thinking is the imperative or urgent way out, only\r\nwhen it is the indicated road to a solution. Wherever external authority\r\nreigns, thinking is suspected and obnoxious.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThinking, however, is not the only way in which a personal solution of\r\ndifficulties is sought. As we have seen, dreams, reveries, emotional\r\nidealizations are roads which are taken to escape the strain of\r\nperplexity and conflict. According to modern psychology, many\r\nsystematized delusions and mental disorders, probably hysteria itself,\r\noriginate as devices for getting freedom from troublesome conflicting\r\nfactors. Such considerations throw into relief some of the traits\r\nessential to\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_140\" id=\"Page_140\"\u003e[Pg 140]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e thinking as a way of responding to difficulty. The\r\nshort-cut \"solutions\" alluded to do not get rid of the conflict and\r\nproblems; they only get rid of the feeling of it. They cover up\r\nconsciousness of it. Because the conflict remains in fact and is evaded\r\nin thought, disorders arise.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe first distinguishing characteristic of thinking then is facing the\r\nfacts\u0026mdash;inquiry, minute and extensive scrutinizing, observation. Nothing\r\nhas done greater harm to the successful conduct of the enterprise of\r\nthinking (and to the logics which reflect and formulate the undertaking)\r\nthan the habit of treating observation as something outside of and prior\r\nto thinking, and thinking as something which can go on in the head\r\nwithout \u003ci\u003eincluding\u003c/i\u003e observation of new facts as part of itself. Every\r\napproximation to such \"thinking\" is really an approach to the method of\r\nescape and self-delusion just referred to. It substitutes an emotionally\r\nagreeable and rationally self-consistent train of meanings for inquiry\r\ninto the features of the situation which cause the trouble. It leads to\r\nthat type of Idealism which has well been termed intellectual\r\nsomnambulism. It creates a class of \"thinkers\" who are remote from\r\npractice and hence from testing their thought by application\u0026mdash;a socially\r\nsuperior and irresponsible class. This is the condition causing the\r\ntragic division of theory and practice, and leading to an unreasonable\r\nexaltation of theory on one\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_141\" id=\"Page_141\"\u003e[Pg 141]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e side and an unreasonable contempt for it on\r\nthe other. It confirms current practice in its hard brutalities and dead\r\nroutines just because it has transferred thinking and theory to a\r\nseparate and nobler region. Thus has the idealist conspired with the\r\nmaterialist to keep actual life impoverished and inequitable.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe isolation of thinking from confrontation with facts encourages that\r\nkind of observation which merely accumulates brute facts, which occupies\r\nitself laboriously with mere details, but never inquires into their\r\nmeaning and consequences\u0026mdash;a safe occupation, for it never contemplates\r\nany use to be made of the observed facts in determining a plan for\r\nchanging the situation. Thinking which is a method of reconstructing\r\nexperience treats observation of facts, on the other hand, as the\r\nindispensable step of defining the problem, of locating the trouble, of\r\nforcing home a definite, instead of a merely vague emotional, sense of\r\nwhat the difficulty is and where it lies. It is not aimless, random,\r\nmiscellaneous, but purposeful, specific and limited by the character of\r\nthe trouble undergone. The purpose is so to clarify the disturbed and\r\nconfused situation that reasonable ways of dealing with it may be\r\nsuggested. When the scientific man appears to observe aimlessly, it is\r\nmerely that he is so in love with problems as sources and guides of\r\ninquiry, that he is striving to turn up a problem where none appears on\r\nthe surface: he\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_142\" id=\"Page_142\"\u003e[Pg 142]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is, as we say, hunting for trouble because of the\r\nsatisfaction to be had in coping with it.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSpecific and wide observation of concrete fact always, then, corresponds\r\nnot only with a sense of a problem or difficulty, but with some vague\r\nsense of the \u003ci\u003emeaning\u003c/i\u003e of the difficulty, that is, of what it imports or\r\nsignifies in subsequent experience. It is a kind of anticipation or\r\nprediction of what is coming. We speak, very truly, of \u003ci\u003eimpending\u003c/i\u003e\r\ntrouble, and in observing the signs of what the trouble is, we are at\r\nthe same time expecting, forecasting\u0026mdash;in short, framing an \u003ci\u003eidea\u003c/i\u003e,\r\nbecoming aware of meaning. When the trouble is not only impending but\r\ncompletely actual and present, we are overwhelmed. We do not think, but\r\ngive way to depression. The kind of trouble that occasions thinking is\r\nthat which is incomplete and developing, and where what is found,\r\nalready in existence can be employed as a sign from which to infer what\r\nis likely to come. When we intelligently observe, we are, as we say\r\napprehensive, as well as apprehending. We are on the alert for something\r\nstill to come. Curiosity, inquiry, investigation, are directed quite as\r\ntruly into what is going to happen next as into what has happened. An\r\nintelligent interest in the latter is an interest in getting evidence,\r\nindications, symptoms for inferring the former. Observation is diagnosis\r\nand diagnosis implies an interest in anticipation and preparation. It\r\nmakes ready in advance an\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_143\" id=\"Page_143\"\u003e[Pg 143]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e attitude of response so that we shall not be\r\ncaught unawares.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThat which is not already in existence, that which is only anticipated\r\nand inferred, cannot be observed. It does not have the status of fact,\r\nof something given, a datum, but of a meaning, an idea. So far as ideas\r\nare not fancies, framed by emotionalized memory for escape and refuge,\r\nthey are precisely anticipations of something still to come aroused by\r\nlooking into the facts of a developing situation. The blacksmith watches\r\nhis iron, its color and texture, to get evidence of what it is getting\r\nready to pass into; the physician observes his patient to detect\r\nsymptoms of change in some definite direction; the scientific man keeps\r\nhis attention upon his laboratory material to get a clue as to what\r\n\u003ci\u003ewill\u003c/i\u003e happen under certain conditions. The very fact that observation\r\nis not an end in itself but a search for evidence and signs shows that\r\nalong with observation goes inference, anticipatory forecast\u0026mdash;in short\r\nan idea, thought or conception.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn a more technical context, it would be worth while to see what light\r\nthis logical correspondence of observed fact and projected idea or\r\nmeaning throws upon certain traditional philosophical problems and\r\npuzzles, including that of subject and predicate in judgment, object and\r\nsubject in knowledge, \"real\" and \"ideal\" generally. But at this time, we\r\nmust confine ourselves to\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_144\" id=\"Page_144\"\u003e[Pg 144]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e pointing out that this view of the\r\ncorrelative origin and function of observed fact and projected idea in\r\nexperience, commits us to some very important consequences concerning\r\nthe nature of ideas, meanings, conceptions, or whatever word may be\r\nemployed to denote the specifically \u003ci\u003emental\u003c/i\u003e function. Because they are\r\nsuggestions of something that may happen or eventuate, they are (as we\r\nsaw in the case of ideals generally) platforms of response to what is\r\ngoing on. The man who detects that the cause of his difficulty is an\r\nautomobile bearing down upon him is not guaranteed safety; he may have\r\nmade his observation-forecast too late. But if his\r\nanticipation-perception comes in season, he has the basis for doing\r\nsomething which will avert threatening disaster. Because he foresees an\r\nimpending result, he may do something that will lead to the situation\r\neventuating in some other way. All intelligent thinking means an\r\nincrement of freedom in action\u0026mdash;an emancipation from chance and\r\nfatality. \"Thought\" represents the suggestion of a way of response that\r\nis different from that which would have been followed if intelligent\r\nobservation had not effected an inference as to the future.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eNow a method of action, a mode of response, intended to produce a\r\ncertain result\u0026mdash;that is, to enable the blacksmith to give a certain form\r\nto his hot iron, the physician to treat the patient so as to facilitate\r\nrecovery, the\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_145\" id=\"Page_145\"\u003e[Pg 145]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e scientific experimenter to draw a conclusion which will\r\napply to other cases,\u0026mdash;is by the nature of the case tentative, uncertain\r\ntill tested by its results. The significance of this fact for the theory\r\nof truth will be discussed below. Here it is enough to note that\r\nnotions, theories, systems, no matter how elaborate and self-consistent\r\nthey are, must be regarded as hypotheses. They are to be accepted as\r\nbases of actions which test them, not as finalities. To perceive this\r\nfact is to abolish rigid dogmas from the world. It is to recognize that\r\nconceptions, theories and systems of thought are always open to\r\ndevelopment through use. It is to enforce the lesson that we must be on\r\nthe lookout quite as much for indications to alter them as for\r\nopportunities to assert them. They are tools. As in the case of all\r\ntools, their value resides not in themselves but in their capacity to\r\nwork shown in the consequences of their use.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, inquiry is free only when the interest in knowing is so\r\ndeveloped that thinking carries with it something worth while for\r\nitself, something having its own esthetic and moral interest. Just\r\nbecause knowing is not self-enclosed and final but is instrumental to\r\nreconstruction of situations, there is always danger that it will be\r\nsubordinated to maintaining some preconceived purpose or prejudice. Then\r\nreflection ceases to be complete; it falls short. Being precommitted to\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_146\" id=\"Page_146\"\u003e[Pg 146]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\narriving at some special result, it is not sincere. It is one thing to\r\nsay that all knowing has an end beyond itself, and another thing, a\r\nthing of a contrary kind, to say that an act of knowing has a particular\r\nend which it is bound, in advance, to reach. Much less is it true that\r\nthe instrumental nature of thinking means that it exists for the sake of\r\nattaining some private, one-sided advantage upon which one has set one\u0027s\r\nheart. Any limitation whatever of the end means limitation in the\r\nthinking process itself. It signifies that it does not attain its full\r\ngrowth and movement, but is cramped, impeded, interfered with. The only\r\nsituation in which knowing is fully stimulated is one in which the end\r\nis developed in the process of inquiry and testing.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eDisinterested and impartial inquiry is then far from meaning that\r\nknowing is self-enclosed and irresponsible. It means that there is no\r\nparticular end set up in advance so as to shut in the activities of\r\nobservation, forming of ideas, and application. Inquiry is emancipated.\r\nIt is encouraged to attend to every fact that is relevant to defining\r\nthe problem or need, and to follow up every suggestion that promises a\r\nclue. The barriers to free inquiry are so many and so solid that mankind\r\nis to be congratulated that the very act of investigation is capable of\r\nitself becoming a delightful and absorbing pursuit, capable of enlisting\r\non its side man\u0027s sporting instincts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_147\" id=\"Page_147\"\u003e[Pg 147]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eJust in the degree in which thought ceases to be held down to ends fixed\r\nby social custom, a social division of labor grows up. Investigation has\r\nbecome a dominant life occupation for some persons. Only superficially,\r\nhowever, does this confirm the idea that theory and knowledge are ends\r\nin themselves. They are, relatively speaking, ends in themselves for\r\nsome persons. But these persons represent a social division of labor;\r\nand their specialization can be trusted only when such persons are in\r\nunobstructed co-operation with other social occupations, sensitive to\r\nothers\u0027 problems and transmitting results to them for wider application\r\nin action. When this social relationship of persons particularly engaged\r\nin carrying on the enterprise of knowing is forgotten and the class\r\nbecomes isolated, inquiry loses stimulus and purpose. It degenerates\r\ninto sterile specialization, a kind of intellectual busy work carried on\r\nby socially absent-minded men. Details are heaped up in the name of\r\nscience, and abstruse dialectical developments of systems occur. Then\r\nthe occupation is \"rationalized\" under the lofty name of devotion to\r\ntruth for its own sake. But when the path of true science is retaken\r\nthese things are brushed aside and forgotten. They turn out to have been\r\nthe toyings of vain and irresponsible men. The only guarantee of\r\nimpartial, disinterested inquiry is the social sensitiveness of the\r\ninquirer to the needs\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_148\" id=\"Page_148\"\u003e[Pg 148]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e and problems of those with whom he is associated.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs the instrumental theory is favorable to high esteem for impartial and\r\ndisinterested inquiry, so, contrary to the impressions of some critics,\r\nit sets much store upon the apparatus of deduction. It is a strange\r\nnotion that because one says that the cognitive value of conceptions,\r\ndefinitions, generalizations, classifications and the development of\r\nconsecutive implications is not self-resident, that therefore one makes\r\nlight of the deductive function, or denies its fruitfulness and\r\nnecessity. The instrumental theory only attempts to state with some\r\nscrupulousness \u003ci\u003ewhere\u003c/i\u003e the value is found and to prevent its being\r\nsought in the wrong place. It says that knowing begins with specific\r\nobservations that define the problem and ends with specific observations\r\nthat test a hypothesis for its solution. But that the idea, the meaning,\r\nwhich the original observations suggest and the final ones test, itself\r\nrequires careful scrutiny and prolonged development, the theory would be\r\nthe last to deny. To say that a locomotive is an agency, that it is\r\nintermediate between a need in experience and its satisfaction, is not\r\nto depreciate the worth of careful and elaborate construction of the\r\nlocomotive, or the need of subsidiary tools and processes that are\r\ndevoted to introducing improvements into its structure. One would rather\r\nsay that \u003ci\u003ebecause\u003c/i\u003e the locomotive is\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_149\" id=\"Page_149\"\u003e[Pg 149]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e intermediary in experience, not\r\nprimary and not final, it is impossible to devote too much care to its\r\nconstructive development.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSuch a deductive science as mathematics represents the perfecting of\r\nmethod. That a method to those concerned with it should present itself\r\nas an end on its own account is no more surprising than that there\r\nshould be a distinct business for making any tool. Rarely are those who\r\ninvent and perfect a tool those who employ it. There is, indeed, one\r\nmarked difference between the physical and the intellectual\r\ninstrumentality. The development of the latter runs far beyond any\r\nimmediately visible use. The artistic interest in perfecting the method\r\nby itself is strong\u0026mdash;as the utensils of civilization may themselves\r\nbecome works of finest art. But from the practical standpoint this\r\ndifference shows that the advantage as an instrumentality is on the side\r\nof the intellectual tool. Just because it is not formed with a special\r\napplication in mind, because it is a highly generalized tool, it is the\r\nmore flexible in adaptation to unforeseen uses. It can be employed in\r\ndealing with problems that were not anticipated. The mind is prepared in\r\nadvance for all sorts of intellectual emergencies, and when the new\r\nproblem occurs it does not have to wait till it can get a special\r\ninstrument ready.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eMore definitely, abstraction is indispensable if one\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_150\" id=\"Page_150\"\u003e[Pg 150]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e experience is to\r\nbe applicable in other experiences. Every concrete experience in its\r\ntotality is unique; it is itself, non-reduplicable. Taken in its full\r\nconcreteness, it yields no instruction, it throws no light. What is\r\ncalled abstraction means that some phase of it is selected for the sake\r\nof the aid it gives in grasping something else. Taken by itself, it is a\r\nmangled fragment, a poor substitute for the living whole from which it\r\nis extracted. But viewed teleologically or practically, it represents\r\nthe only way in which one experience can be made of any value for\r\nanother\u0026mdash;the only way in which something enlightening can be secured.\r\nWhat is called false or vicious abstractionism signifies that the\r\n\u003ci\u003efunction\u003c/i\u003e of the detached fragment is forgotten and neglected, so that\r\nit is esteemed barely in itself as something of a higher order than the\r\nmuddy and irregular concrete from which it was wrenched. Looked at\r\nfunctionally, not structurally and statically, abstraction means that\r\nsomething has been released from one experience for transfer to another.\r\nAbstraction is liberation. The more theoretical, the more abstract, an\r\nabstraction, or the farther away it is from anything experienced in its\r\nconcreteness, the better fitted it is to deal with any one of the\r\nindefinite variety of things that may later present themselves. Ancient\r\nmathematics and physics were much nearer the gross concrete experience\r\nthan are modern. For that very reason they were\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_151\" id=\"Page_151\"\u003e[Pg 151]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e more impotent in\r\naffording any insight into and control over such concretes as present\r\nthemselves in new and unexpected forms.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAbstraction and generalization have always been recognized as close kin.\r\nIt may be said that they are the negative and positive sides of the same\r\nfunction. Abstraction sets free some factor so that it may be used.\r\nGeneralization is the use. It carries over and extends. It is always in\r\nsome sense a leap in the dark. It is an adventure. There can be no\r\nassurance in advance that what is extracted from one concrete can be\r\nfruitfully extended to another individual case. Since these other cases\r\nare individual and concrete they \u003ci\u003emust\u003c/i\u003e be dissimilar. The trait of\r\nflying is detached from the concrete bird. This abstraction is then\r\ncarried over to the bat, and it is expected in view of the application\r\nof the quality to have some of the other traits of the bird. This\r\ntrivial instance indicates the essence of generalization, and also\r\nillustrates the riskiness of the proceeding. It transfers, extends,\r\napplies, a result of some former experience to the reception and\r\ninterpretation of a new one. Deductive processes define, delimit, purify\r\nand set in order the conceptions through which this enriching and\r\ndirective operation is carried on, but they cannot, however perfect,\r\nguarantee the outcome.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe pragmatic value of organization is so conspicu\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_152\" id=\"Page_152\"\u003e[Pg 152]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003eously enforced in\r\ncontemporary life that it hardly seems necessary to dwell upon the\r\ninstrumental significance of classification and systematization. When\r\nthe existence of qualitative and fixed species was denied to be the\r\nsupreme object of knowledge, classification was often regarded,\r\nespecially by the empirical school, as merely a linguistic device. It\r\nwas convenient for memory and communication to have words that sum up a\r\nnumber of particulars. Classes were supposed to exist only in speech.\r\nLater, ideas were recognized as a kind of \u003ci\u003etertium quid\u003c/i\u003e between things\r\nand words. Classes were allowed to exist in the mind as purely mental\r\nthings. The critical disposition of empiricism is well exemplified here.\r\nTo assign any objectivity to classes was to encourage a belief in\r\neternal species and occult essences and to strengthen the arms of a\r\ndecadent and obnoxious science\u0026mdash;a point of view well illustrated in\r\nLocke. General \u003ci\u003eideas\u003c/i\u003e are useful in economizing effort, enabling us to\r\ncondense particular experiences into simpler and more easily carried\r\nbunches and making it easier to identify new observations.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSo far nominalism and conceptualism\u0026mdash;the theory that kinds exist only in\r\nwords or in ideas\u0026mdash;was on the right track. It emphasized the\r\nteleological character of systems and classifications, that they exist\r\nfor the sake of economy and efficiency in reaching ends. But this truth\r\nwas perverted into a false notion, because\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_153\" id=\"Page_153\"\u003e[Pg 153]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e the active and doing side of\r\nexperience was denied or ignored. Concrete things have \u003ci\u003eways\u003c/i\u003e of acting,\r\nas many ways of acting as they have points of interaction with other\r\nthings. One thing is callous, unresponsive, inert in the presence of\r\nsome other things; it is alert, eager, and on the aggressive with\r\nrespect to other things; in a third case, it is receptive, docile. Now\r\ndifferent ways of behaving, in spite of their endless diversity, may be\r\nclassed together in view of common relationship to an end. No sensible\r\nperson tries to do everything. He has certain main interests and leading\r\naims by which he makes his behavior coherent and effective. To have an\r\naim is to limit, select, concentrate, group. Thus a basis is furnished\r\nfor selecting and organizing things according as their ways of acting\r\nare related to carrying forward pursuit. Cherry trees will be\r\ndifferently grouped by woodworkers, orchardists, artists, scientists and\r\nmerry-makers. To the execution of different purposes different ways of\r\nacting and reacting on the part of trees are important. Each\r\nclassification may be equally sound when the difference of ends is borne\r\nin mind.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless there is a genuine objective standard for the goodness of\r\nspecial classifications. One will further the cabinetmaker in reaching\r\nhis end while another will hamper him. One classification will assist\r\nthe botanist in carrying on fruitfully his work of inquiry, and an\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_154\" id=\"Page_154\"\u003e[Pg 154]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003eother\r\nwill retard and confuse him. The teleological theory of classification\r\ndoes not therefore commit us to the notion that classes are purely\r\nverbal or purely mental. Organization is no more merely nominal or\r\nmental in any art, including the art of inquiry, than it is in a\r\ndepartment store or railway system. The necessity of execution supplies\r\nobjective criteria. Things have to be sorted out and arranged so that\r\ntheir grouping will promote successful action for ends. Convenience,\r\neconomy and efficiency are the bases of classification, but these things\r\nare not restricted to verbal communication with others nor to inner\r\nconsciousness; they concern objective action. They must take effect in\r\nthe world.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAt the same time, a classification is not a bare transcript or duplicate\r\nof some finished and done-for arrangement pre-existing in nature. It is\r\nrather a repertory of weapons for attack upon the future and the\r\nunknown. For success, the details of past knowledge must be reduced from\r\nbare facts to meanings, the fewer, simpler and more extensive the\r\nbetter. They must be broad enough in scope to prepare inquiry to cope\r\nwith any phenomenon however unexpected. They must be arranged so as not\r\nto overlap, for otherwise when they are applied to new events they\r\ninterfere and produce confusion. In order that there may be ease and\r\neconomy of movement in dealing with the\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_155\" id=\"Page_155\"\u003e[Pg 155]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e enormous diversity of\r\noccurrences that present themselves, we must be able to move promptly\r\nand definitely from one tool of attack to another. In other words, our\r\nvarious classes and kinds must be themselves classified in graded series\r\nfrom the larger to the more specific. There must not only be streets,\r\nbut the streets must be laid out with reference to facilitating passage\r\nfrom any one to any other. Classification transforms a wilderness of\r\nby-ways in experience into a well-ordered system of roads, promoting\r\ntransportation and communication in inquiry. As soon as men begin to\r\ntake foresight for the future and to prepare themselves in advance to\r\nmeet it effectively and prosperously, the deductive operations and their\r\nresults gain in importance. In every practical enterprise there are\r\ngoods to be produced, and whatever eliminates wasted material and\r\npromotes economy and efficiency of production is precious.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eLittle time is left to speak of the account of the nature of truth given\r\nby the experimental and functional type of logic. This is less to be\r\nregretted because this account is completely a corollary from the nature\r\nof thinking and ideas. If the view held as to the latter is understood,\r\nthe conception of truth follows as a matter of course. If it be not\r\nunderstood, any attempt to present the theory of truth is bound to be\r\nconfusing, and the theory itself to seem arbi\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_156\" id=\"Page_156\"\u003e[Pg 156]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003etrary and absurd. \u003ci\u003eIf\u003c/i\u003e\r\nideas, meanings, conceptions, notions, theories, systems are\r\ninstrumental to an active reorganization of the given environment, to a\r\nremoval of some specific trouble and perplexity, then the test of their\r\nvalidity and value lies in accomplishing this work. If they succeed in\r\ntheir office, they are reliable, sound, valid, good, true. If they fail\r\nto clear up confusion, to eliminate defects, if they increase confusion,\r\nuncertainty and evil when they are acted upon, then are they false.\r\nConfirmation, corroboration, verification lie in works, consequences.\r\nHandsome is that handsome does. By their fruits shall ye \u003ci\u003eknow\u003c/i\u003e them.\r\nThat which guides us truly is true\u0026mdash;demonstrated capacity for such\r\nguidance is precisely what is meant by truth. The adverb \"truly\" is more\r\nfundamental than either the adjective, true, or the noun, truth. An\r\nadverb expresses a way, a mode of acting. Now an idea or conception is a\r\nclaim or injunction or plan to \u003ci\u003eact\u003c/i\u003e in a certain way as the way to\r\narrive at the clearing up of a specific situation. When the claim or\r\npretension or plan is acted upon \u003ci\u003eit guides us truly or falsely\u003c/i\u003e; it\r\nleads us to our end or away from it. Its active, dynamic function is the\r\nall-important thing about it, and in the quality of activity induced by\r\nit lies all its truth and falsity. The hypothesis that works is the\r\n\u003ci\u003etrue\u003c/i\u003e one; and \u003ci\u003etruth\u003c/i\u003e is an abstract noun applied to the collection of\r\ncases, actual, foreseen and desired, that\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_157\" id=\"Page_157\"\u003e[Pg 157]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e receive confirmation in their\r\nworks and consequences.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSo wholly does the worth of this conception of truth depend upon the\r\ncorrectness of the prior account of thinking that it is more profitable\r\nto consider why the conception gives offence than to expound it on its\r\nown account. Part of the reason why it has been found so obnoxious is\r\ndoubtless its novelty and defects in its statement. Too often, for\r\nexample, when truth has been thought of as satisfaction, it has been\r\nthought of as merely emotional satisfaction, a private comfort, a\r\nmeeting of purely personal need. But the satisfaction in question means\r\na satisfaction of the needs and conditions of the problem out of which\r\nthe idea, the purpose and method of action, arises. It includes public\r\nand objective conditions. It is not to be manipulated by whim or\r\npersonal idiosyncrasy. Again when truth is defined as utility, it is\r\noften thought to mean utility for some purely personal end, some profit\r\nupon which a particular individual has set his heart. So repulsive is a\r\nconception of truth which makes it a mere tool of private ambition and\r\naggrandizement, that the wonder is that critics have attributed such a\r\nnotion to sane men. As matter of fact, truth as utility means service in\r\nmaking just that contribution to reorganization in experience that the\r\nidea or theory claims to be able to make. The usefulness\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_158\" id=\"Page_158\"\u003e[Pg 158]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e of a road is\r\nnot measured by the degree in which it lends itself to the purposes of a\r\nhighwayman. It is measured by whether it actually functions \u003ci\u003eas\u003c/i\u003e a road,\r\nas a means of easy and effective public transportation and\r\ncommunication. And so with the serviceableness of an idea or hypothesis\r\nas a measure of its truth.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eTurning from such rather superficial misunderstandings, we find, I\r\nthink, the chief obstacle to the reception of this notion of truth in an\r\ninheritance from the classic tradition that has become so deeply\r\nengrained in men\u0027s minds. In just the degree in which existence is\r\ndivided into two realms, a higher one of perfect being and a lower one\r\nof seeming, phenomenal, deficient reality, truth and falsity are thought\r\nof as fixed, ready-made static properties of things themselves. Supreme\r\nReality is true Being, inferior and imperfect Reality is false Being. It\r\nmakes claims to Reality which it cannot substantiate. It is deceitful,\r\nfraudulent, inherently unworthy of trust and belief. Beliefs are false\r\nnot because they mislead us; they are not mistaken ways of thinking.\r\nThey are false because they admit and adhere to false existences or\r\nsubsistences. Other notions are true because they do have to do with\r\ntrue Being\u0026mdash;with full and ultimate Reality. Such a notion lies at the\r\nback of the head of every one who has, in however an indirect way, been\r\na recipient of the ancient and medieval tradition. This view is\r\nradically challenged by\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_159\" id=\"Page_159\"\u003e[Pg 159]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e the pragmatic conception of truth, and the\r\nimpossibility of reconciliation or compromise is, I think, the cause of\r\nthe shock occasioned by the newer theory.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThis contrast, however, constitutes the importance of the new theory as\r\nwell as the unconscious obstruction to its acceptance. The older\r\nconception worked out practically to identify truth with authoritative\r\ndogma. A society that chiefly esteems order, that finds growth painful\r\nand change disturbing, inevitably seeks for a fixed body of superior\r\ntruths upon which it may depend. It looks backward, to something already\r\nin existence, for the source and sanction of truth. It falls back upon\r\nwhat is antecedent, prior, original, \u003ci\u003ea priori\u003c/i\u003e, for assurance. The\r\nthought of looking ahead, toward the eventual, toward consequences,\r\ncreates uneasiness and fear. It disturbs the sense of rest that is\r\nattached to the ideas of fixed Truth already in existence. It puts a\r\nheavy burden of responsibility upon us for search, unremitting\r\nobservation, scrupulous development of hypotheses and thoroughgoing\r\ntesting. In physical matters men have slowly grown accustomed in all\r\nspecific beliefs to identifying the true with the verified. But they\r\nstill hesitate to recognize the implication of this identification and\r\nto derive the definition of truth from it. For while it is nominally\r\nagreed upon as a commonplace that definitions ought to spring from\r\nconcrete and specific cases rather than be invented in the\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_160\" id=\"Page_160\"\u003e[Pg 160]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e empty air\r\nand imposed upon particulars, there is a strange unwillingness to act\r\nupon the maxim in defining truth. To generalize the recognition that the\r\ntrue means the verified and means nothing else places upon men the\r\nresponsibility for surrendering political and moral dogmas, and\r\nsubjecting to the test of consequences their most cherished prejudices.\r\nSuch a change involves a great change in the seat of authority and the\r\nmethods of decision in society. Some of them, as first fruits of the\r\nnewer logic, will be considered in the following lectures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003chr class=\"chap\" /\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_161\" id=\"Page_161\"\u003e[Pg 161]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"CHAPTER_VII\" id=\"CHAPTER_VII\"\u003eCHAPTER VII\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003eRECONSTRUCTION IN MORAL CONCEPTIONS\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe impact of the alteration in methods of scientific thinking upon\r\nmoral ideas is, in general, obvious. Goods, ends are multiplied. Rules\r\nare softened into principles, and principles are modified into methods\r\nof understanding. Ethical theory began among the Greeks as an attempt to\r\nfind a regulation for the conduct of life which should have a rational\r\nbasis and purpose instead of being derived from custom. But reason as a\r\nsubstitute for custom was under the obligation of supplying objects and\r\nlaws as fixed as those of custom had been. Ethical theory ever since has\r\nbeen singularly hypnotized by the notion that its business is to\r\ndiscover some final end or good or some ultimate and supreme law. This\r\nis the common element among the diversity of theories. Some have held\r\nthat the end is loyalty or obedience to a higher power or authority; and\r\nthey have variously found this higher principle in Divine Will, the will\r\nof the secular ruler, the maintenance of institutions in which the\r\npurpose of superiors is embodied, and the rational consciousness of\r\nduty. But they have differed from one another because there was\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_162\" id=\"Page_162\"\u003e[Pg 162]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e one\r\npoint in which they were agreed: a single and final source of law.\r\nOthers have asserted that it is impossible to locate morality in\r\nconformity to law-giving power, and that it must be sought in ends that\r\nare goods. And some have sought the good in self-realization, some in\r\nholiness, some in happiness, some in the greatest possible aggregate of\r\npleasures. And yet these schools have agreed in the assumption that\r\nthere is a single, fixed and final good. They have been able to dispute\r\nwith one another only because of their common premise.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe question arises whether the way out of the confusion and conflict is\r\nnot to go to the root of the matter by questioning this common element.\r\nIs not the belief in the single, final and ultimate (whether conceived\r\nas good or as authoritative law) an intellectual product of that feudal\r\norganization which is disappearing historically and of that belief in a\r\nbounded, ordered cosmos, wherein rest is higher than motion, which has\r\ndisappeared from natural science? It has been repeatedly suggested that\r\nthe present limit of intellectual reconstruction lies in the fact that\r\nit has not as yet been seriously applied in the moral and social\r\ndisciplines. Would not this further application demand precisely that we\r\nadvance to a belief in a plurality of changing, moving, individualized\r\ngoods and ends, and to a belief that principles, criteria, laws are\r\nintellectual\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_163\" id=\"Page_163\"\u003e[Pg 163]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e instruments for analyzing individual or unique situations?\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe blunt assertion that every moral situation is a unique situation\r\nhaving its own irreplaceable good may seem not merely blunt but\r\npreposterous. For the established tradition teaches that it is precisely\r\nthe irregularity of special cases which makes necessary the guidance of\r\nconduct by universals, and that the essence of the virtuous disposition\r\nis willingness to subordinate every particular case to adjudication by a\r\nfixed principle. It would then follow that submission of a generic end\r\nand law to determination by the concrete situation entails complete\r\nconfusion and unrestrained licentiousness. Let us, however, follow the\r\npragmatic rule, and in order to discover the meaning of the idea ask for\r\nits consequences. Then it surprisingly turns out that the primary\r\nsignificance of the unique and morally ultimate character of the\r\nconcrete situation is to transfer the weight and burden of morality to\r\nintelligence. It does not destroy responsibility; it only locates it. A\r\nmoral situation is one in which judgment and choice are required\r\nantecedently to overt action. The practical meaning of the\r\nsituation\u0026mdash;that is to say the action needed to satisfy it\u0026mdash;is not\r\nself-evident. It has to be searched for. There are conflicting desires\r\nand alternative apparent goods. What is needed is to find the right\r\ncourse of action, the right\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_164\" id=\"Page_164\"\u003e[Pg 164]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e good. Hence, inquiry is exacted:\r\nobservation of the detailed makeup of the situation; analysis into its\r\ndiverse factors; clarification of what is obscure; discounting of the\r\nmore insistent and vivid traits; tracing the consequences of the various\r\nmodes of action that suggest themselves; regarding the decision reached\r\nas hypothetical and tentative until the anticipated or supposed\r\nconsequences which led to its adoption have been squared with actual\r\nconsequences. This inquiry is intelligence. Our moral failures go back\r\nto some weakness of disposition, some absence of sympathy, some\r\none-sided bias that makes us perform the judgment of the concrete case\r\ncarelessly or perversely. Wide sympathy, keen sensitiveness, persistence\r\nin the face of the disagreeable, balance of interests enabling us to\r\nundertake the work of analysis and decision intelligently are the\r\ndistinctively moral traits\u0026mdash;the virtues or moral excellencies.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt is worth noting once more that the underlying issue is, after all,\r\nonly the same as that which has been already threshed out in physical\r\ninquiry. There too it long seemed as if rational assurance and\r\ndemonstration could be attained only if we began with universal\r\nconceptions and subsumed particular cases under them. The men who\r\ninitiated the methods of inquiry that are now everywhere adopted were\r\ndenounced in their day (and sincerely) as subverters of truth and foes\r\nof\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_165\" id=\"Page_165\"\u003e[Pg 165]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e science. If they have won in the end, it is because, as has already\r\nbeen pointed out, the method of universals confirmed prejudices and\r\nsanctioned ideas that had gained currency irrespective of evidence for\r\nthem; while placing the initial and final weight upon the individual\r\ncase, stimulated painstaking inquiry into facts and examination of\r\nprinciples. In the end, loss of eternal truths was more than compensated\r\nfor in the accession of quotidian facts. The loss of the system of\r\nsuperior and fixed definitions and kinds was more than made up for by\r\nthe growing system of hypotheses and laws used in classifying facts.\r\nAfter all, then, we are only pleading for the adoption in moral\r\nreflection of the logic that has been proved to make for security,\r\nstringency and fertility in passing judgments upon physical phenomena.\r\nAnd the reason is the same. The old method in spite of its nominal and\r\nesthetic worship of reason discouraged reason, because it hindered the\r\noperation of scrupulous and unremitting inquiry.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eMore definitely, the transfer of the burden of the moral life from\r\nfollowing rules or pursuing fixed ends over to the detection of the ills\r\nthat need remedy in a special case and the formation of plans and\r\nmethods for dealing with them, eliminates the causes which have kept\r\nmoral theory controversial, and which have also kept it remote from\r\nhelpful contact with the exigencies\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_166\" id=\"Page_166\"\u003e[Pg 166]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e of practice. The theory of fixed\r\nends inevitably leads thought into the bog of disputes that cannot be\r\nsettled. If there is one \u003ci\u003esummum bonum\u003c/i\u003e, one supreme end, what is it? To\r\nconsider this problem is to place ourselves in the midst of\r\ncontroversies that are as acute now as they were two thousand years ago.\r\nSuppose we take a seemingly more empirical view, and say that while\r\nthere is not a single end, there also are not as many as there are\r\nspecific situations that require amelioration; but there are a number of\r\nsuch natural goods as health, wealth, honor or good name, friendship,\r\nesthetic appreciation, learning and such moral goods as justice,\r\ntemperance, benevolence, etc. What or who is to decide the right of way\r\nwhen these ends conflict with one another, as they are sure to do? Shall\r\nwe resort to the method that once brought such disrepute upon the whole\r\nbusiness of ethics: Casuistry? Or shall we have recourse to what Bentham\r\nwell called the \u003ci\u003eipse dixit\u003c/i\u003e method: the arbitrary preference of this or\r\nthat person for this or that end? Or shall we be forced to arrange them\r\nall in an order of degrees from the highest good down to the least\r\nprecious? Again we find ourselves in the middle of unreconciled disputes\r\nwith no indication of the way out.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eMeantime, the special moral perplexities where the aid of intelligence\r\nis required go unenlightened. We cannot seek or attain health, wealth,\r\nlearning, justice\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_167\" id=\"Page_167\"\u003e[Pg 167]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e or kindness in general. Action is always specific,\r\nconcrete, individualized, unique. And consequently judgments as to acts\r\nto be performed must be similarly specific. To say that a man seeks\r\nhealth or justice is only to say that he seeks to live healthily or\r\njustly. These things, like truth, are adverbial. They are modifiers of\r\naction in special cases. How to live healthily or justly is a matter\r\nwhich differs with every person. It varies with his past experience, his\r\nopportunities, his temperamental and acquired weaknesses and abilities.\r\nNot man in general but a particular man suffering from some particular\r\ndisability aims to live healthily, and consequently health cannot mean\r\nfor him exactly what it means for any other mortal. Healthy living is\r\nnot something to be attained by itself apart from other ways of living.\r\nA man needs to be healthy \u003ci\u003ein\u003c/i\u003e his life, not apart from it, and what\r\ndoes life mean except the aggregate of his pursuits and activities? A\r\nman who aims at health as a distinct end becomes a valetudinarian, or a\r\nfanatic, or a mechanical performer of exercises, or an athlete so\r\none-sided that his pursuit of bodily development injures his heart. When\r\nthe endeavor to realize a so-called end does not temper and color all\r\nother activities, life is portioned out into strips and fractions.\r\nCertain acts and times are devoted to getting health, others to\r\ncultivating religion, others to seeking learning, to being a good\r\ncitizen, a devotee of fine art\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_168\" id=\"Page_168\"\u003e[Pg 168]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e and so on. This is the only logical\r\nalternative to subordinating all aims to the accomplishment of one\r\nalone\u0026mdash;fanaticism. This is out of fashion at present, but who can say\r\nhow much of distraction and dissipation in life, and how much of its\r\nhard and narrow rigidity is the outcome of men\u0027s failure to realize that\r\neach situation has its own unique end and that the whole personality\r\nshould be concerned with it? Surely, once more, what a man needs is to\r\nlive healthily, and this result so affects all the activities of his\r\nlife that it cannot be set up as a separate and independent good.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless the general notions of health, disease, justice, artistic\r\nculture are of great importance: Not, however, because this or that case\r\nmay be brought exhaustively under a single head and its specific traits\r\nshut out, but because generalized science provides a man as physician\r\nand artist and citizen, with questions to ask, investigations to make,\r\nand enables him to understand the meaning of what he sees. Just in the\r\ndegree in which a physician is an artist in his work he uses his\r\nscience, no matter how extensive and accurate, to furnish him with tools\r\nof inquiry into the individual case, and with methods of forecasting a\r\nmethod of dealing with it. Just in the degree in which, no matter how\r\ngreat his learning, he subordinates the individual case to some\r\nclassification of diseases and some generic rule of treatment, he sinks\r\nto the level of the routine\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_169\" id=\"Page_169\"\u003e[Pg 169]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e mechanic. His intelligence and his action\r\nbecome rigid, dogmatic, instead of free and flexible.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ci\u003eMoral\u003c/i\u003e goods and ends exist only when something has to be done. The\r\nfact that something has to be done proves that there are deficiencies,\r\nevils in the existent situation. This ill is just the specific ill that\r\nit is. It never is an exact duplicate of anything else. Consequently the\r\ngood of the situation has to be discovered, projected and attained on\r\nthe basis of the exact defect and trouble to be rectified. It cannot\r\nintelligently be injected into the situation from without. Yet it is the\r\npart of wisdom to compare different cases, to gather together the ills\r\nfrom which humanity suffers, and to generalize the corresponding goods\r\ninto classes. Health, wealth, industry, temperance, amiability,\r\ncourtesy, learning, esthetic capacity, initiative, courage, patience,\r\nenterprise, thoroughness and a multitude of other generalized ends are\r\nacknowledged as goods. But the \u003ci\u003evalue\u003c/i\u003e of this systematization is\r\nintellectual or analytic. Classifications \u003ci\u003esuggest\u003c/i\u003e possible traits to\r\nbe on the lookout for in studying a particular case; they suggest\r\nmethods of action to be tried in removing the inferred causes of ill.\r\nThey are tools of insight; their value is in promoting an individualized\r\nresponse in the individual situation.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eMorals is not a catalogue of acts nor a set of rules to be applied like\r\ndrugstore prescriptions or cook-book\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_170\" id=\"Page_170\"\u003e[Pg 170]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e recipes. The need in morals is for\r\nspecific methods of inquiry and of contrivance: Methods of inquiry to\r\nlocate difficulties and evils; methods of contrivance to form plans to\r\nbe used as working hypotheses in dealing with them. And the pragmatic\r\nimport of the logic of individualized situations, each having its own\r\nirreplaceable good and principle, is to transfer the attention of theory\r\nfrom preoccupation with general conceptions to the problem of developing\r\neffective methods of inquiry.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eTwo ethical consequences of great moment should be remarked. The belief\r\nin fixed values has bred a division of ends into intrinsic and\r\ninstrumental, of those that are really worth while in themselves and\r\nthose that are of importance only as means to intrinsic goods. Indeed,\r\nit is often thought to be the very beginning of wisdom, of moral\r\ndiscrimination, to make this distinction. Dialectically, the distinction\r\nis interesting and seems harmless. But carried into practice it has an\r\nimport that is tragic. Historically, it has been the source and\r\njustification of a hard and fast difference between ideal goods on one\r\nside and material goods on the other. At present those who would be\r\nliberal conceive intrinsic goods as esthetic in nature rather than as\r\nexclusively religious or as intellectually contemplative. But the effect\r\nis the same. So-called intrinsic goods, whether religious or esthetic,\r\nare divorced from those interests\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_171\" id=\"Page_171\"\u003e[Pg 171]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e of daily life which because of their\r\nconstancy and urgency form the preoccupation of the great mass.\r\nAristotle used this distinction to declare that slaves and the working\r\nclass though they are necessary \u003ci\u003efor\u003c/i\u003e the state\u0026mdash;the commonweal\u0026mdash;are not\r\nconstituents \u003ci\u003eof\u003c/i\u003e it. That which is regarded as \u003ci\u003emerely\u003c/i\u003e instrumental\r\nmust approach drudgery; it cannot command either intellectual, artistic\r\nor moral attention and respect. Anything becomes \u003ci\u003eunworthy\u003c/i\u003e whenever it\r\nis thought of as intrinsically lacking worth. So men of \"ideal\"\r\ninterests have chosen for the most part the way of neglect and escape.\r\nThe urgency and pressure of \"lower\" ends have been covered up by polite\r\nconventions. Or, they have been relegated to a baser class of mortals in\r\norder that the few might be free to attend to the goods that are really\r\nor intrinsically worth while. This withdrawal, in the name of higher\r\nends, has left, for mankind at large and especially for energetic\r\n\"practical\" people the lower activities in complete command.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eNo one can possibly estimate how much of the obnoxious materialism and\r\nbrutality of our economic life is due to the fact that economic ends\r\nhave been regarded as \u003ci\u003emerely\u003c/i\u003e instrumental. When they are recognized to\r\nbe as intrinsic and final in their place as any others, then it will be\r\nseen that they are capable of idealization, and that if life is to be\r\nworth while, they must acquire ideal and intrinsic value. Esthetic,\r\nre\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_172\" id=\"Page_172\"\u003e[Pg 172]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003eligious and other \"ideal\" ends are now thin and meagre or else idle\r\nand luxurious because of the separation from \"instrumental\" or economic\r\nends. Only in connection with the latter can they be woven into the\r\ntexture of daily life and made substantial and pervasive. The vanity and\r\nirresponsibility of values that are merely final and not also in turn\r\nmeans to the enrichment of other occupations of life ought to be\r\nobvious. But now the doctrine of \"higher\" ends gives aid, comfort and\r\nsupport to every socially isolated and socially irresponsible scholar,\r\nspecialist, esthete and religionist. It protects the vanity and\r\nirresponsibility of his calling from observation by others and by\r\nhimself. The moral deficiency of the calling is transformed into a cause\r\nof admiration and gratulation.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe other generic change lies in doing away once for all with the\r\ntraditional distinction between moral goods, like the virtues, and\r\nnatural goods like health, economic security, art, science and the like.\r\nThe point of view under discussion is not the only one which has\r\ndeplored this rigid distinction and endeavored to abolish it. Some\r\nschools have even gone so far as to regard moral excellencies, qualities\r\nof character as of value only because they promote natural goods. But\r\nthe experimental logic when carried into morals makes every quality that\r\nis judged to be good according as it contributes to amelioration of\r\nexisting ills. And in so doing, it\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_173\" id=\"Page_173\"\u003e[Pg 173]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e enforces the moral meaning of\r\nnatural science. When all is said and done in criticism of present\r\nsocial deficiencies, one may well wonder whether the root difficulty\r\ndoes not lie in the separation of natural and moral science. When\r\nphysics, chemistry, biology, medicine, contribute to the detection of\r\nconcrete human woes and to the development of plans for remedying them\r\nand relieving the human estate, they become moral; they become part of\r\nthe apparatus of moral inquiry or science. The latter then loses its\r\npeculiar flavor of the didactic and pedantic; its ultra-moralistic and\r\nhortatory tone. It loses its thinness and shrillness as well as its\r\nvagueness. It gains agencies that are efficacious. But the gain is not\r\nconfined to the side of moral science. Natural science loses its divorce\r\nfrom humanity; it becomes itself humanistic in quality. It is something\r\nto be pursued not in a technical and specialized way for what is called\r\ntruth for its own sake, but with the sense of its social bearing, its\r\nintellectual indispensableness. It is technical only in the sense that\r\nit provides the technique of social and moral engineering.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWhen the consciousness of science is fully impregnated with the\r\nconsciousness of human value, the greatest dualism which now weighs\r\nhumanity down, the split between the material, the mechanical, the\r\nscientific and the moral and ideal will be destroyed. Human forces that\r\nnow waver because of this division will be\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_174\" id=\"Page_174\"\u003e[Pg 174]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e unified and reinforced. As\r\nlong as ends are not thought of as individualized according to specific\r\nneeds and opportunities, the mind will be content with abstractions, and\r\nthe adequate stimulus to the moral or social use of natural science and\r\nhistorical data will be lacking. But when attention is concentrated upon\r\nthe diversified concretes, recourse to all intellectual materials needed\r\nto clear up the special cases will be imperative. At the same time that\r\nmorals are made to focus in intelligence, things intellectual are\r\nmoralized. The vexatious and wasteful conflict between naturalism and\r\nhumanism is terminated.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThese general considerations may be amplified. First: Inquiry, discovery\r\ntake the same place in morals that they have come to occupy in sciences\r\nof nature. Validation, demonstration become experimental, a matter of\r\nconsequences. Reason, always an honorific term in ethics, becomes\r\nactualized in the methods by which the needs and conditions, the\r\nobstacles and resources, of situations are scrutinized in detail, and\r\nintelligent plans of improvement are worked out. Remote and abstract\r\ngeneralities promote jumping at conclusions, \"anticipations of nature.\"\r\nBad consequences are then deplored as due to natural perversity and\r\nuntoward fate. But shifting the issue to analysis of a specific\r\nsituation makes inquiry obligatory and alert observation of consequences\r\nimperative. No past decision nor\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_175\" id=\"Page_175\"\u003e[Pg 175]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e old principle can ever be wholly\r\nrelied upon to justify a course of action. No amount of pains taken in\r\nforming a purpose in a definite case is final; the consequences of its\r\nadoption must be carefully noted, and a purpose held only as a working\r\nhypothesis until results confirm its rightness. Mistakes are no longer\r\neither mere unavoidable accidents to be mourned or moral sins to be\r\nexpiated and forgiven. They are lessons in wrong methods of using\r\nintelligence and instructions as to a better course in the future. They\r\nare indications of the need of revision, development, readjustment. Ends\r\ngrow, standards of judgment are improved. Man is under just as much\r\nobligation to develop his most advanced standards and ideals as to use\r\nconscientiously those which he already possesses. Moral life is\r\nprotected from falling into formalism and rigid repetition. It is\r\nrendered flexible, vital, growing.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn the second place, every case where moral action is required becomes\r\nof equal moral importance and urgency with every other. If the need and\r\ndeficiencies of a specific situation indicate improvement of health as\r\nthe end and good, then for that situation health is the ultimate and\r\nsupreme good. It is no means to something else. It is a final and\r\nintrinsic value. The same thing is true of improvement of economic\r\nstatus, of making a living, of attending to business and family\r\ndemands\u0026mdash;all of the things which under the sanction of\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_176\" id=\"Page_176\"\u003e[Pg 176]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e fixed ends have\r\nbeen rendered of secondary and merely instrumental value, and so\r\nrelatively base and unimportant. Anything that in a given situation is\r\nan end and good at all is of equal worth, rank and dignity with every\r\nother good of any other situation, and deserves the same intelligent\r\nattention.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWe note thirdly the effect in destroying the roots of Phariseeism. We\r\nare so accustomed to thinking of this as deliberate hypocrisy that we\r\noverlook its intellectual premises. The conception which looks for the\r\nend of action within the circumstances of the actual situation will not\r\nhave the same measure of judgment for all cases. When one factor of the\r\nsituation is a person of trained mind and large resources, more will be\r\nexpected than with a person of backward mind and uncultured experience.\r\nThe absurdity of applying the same standard of moral judgment to savage\r\npeoples that is used with civilized will be apparent. No individual or\r\ngroup will be judged by whether they come up to or fall short of some\r\nfixed result, but by the direction in which they are moving. The bad man\r\nis the man who no matter how good he \u003ci\u003ehas\u003c/i\u003e been is beginning to\r\ndeteriorate, to grow less good. The good man is the man who no matter\r\nhow morally unworthy he \u003ci\u003ehas\u003c/i\u003e been is moving to become better. Such a\r\nconception makes one severe in judging himself and humane in judging\r\nothers. It excludes that arrogance which always accompanies\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_177\" id=\"Page_177\"\u003e[Pg 177]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e judgment\r\nbased on degree of approximation to fixed ends.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn the fourth place, the process of growth, of improvement and progress,\r\nrather than the static outcome and result, becomes the significant\r\nthing. Not health as an end fixed once and for all, but the needed\r\nimprovement in health\u0026mdash;a continual process\u0026mdash;is the end and good. The end\r\nis no longer a terminus or limit to be reached. It is the active process\r\nof transforming the existent situation. Not perfection as a final goal,\r\nbut the ever-enduring process of perfecting, maturing, refining is the\r\naim in living. Honesty, industry, temperance, justice, like health,\r\nwealth and learning, are not goods to be possessed as they would be if\r\nthey expressed fixed ends to be attained. They are directions of change\r\nin the quality of experience. Growth itself is the only moral \"end.\"\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough the bearing of this idea upon the problem of evil and the\r\ncontroversy between optimism and pessimism is too vast to be here\r\ndiscussed, it may be worth while to touch upon it superficially. The\r\nproblem of evil ceases to be a theological and metaphysical one, and is\r\nperceived to be the practical problem of reducing, alleviating, as far\r\nas may be removing, the evils of life. Philosophy is no longer under\r\nobligation to find ingenious methods for proving that evils are only\r\napparent, not real, or to elaborate schemes for explaining\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_178\" id=\"Page_178\"\u003e[Pg 178]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e them away\r\nor, worse yet, for justifying them. It assumes another obligation:\u0026mdash;That\r\nof contributing in however humble a way to methods that will assist us\r\nin discovering the causes of humanity\u0027s ills. Pessimism is a paralyzing\r\ndoctrine. In declaring that the world is evil wholesale, it makes futile\r\nall efforts to discover the remediable causes of specific evils and\r\nthereby destroys at the root every attempt to make the world better and\r\nhappier. Wholesale optimism, which has been the consequence of the\r\nattempt to explain evil away, is, however, equally an incubus.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAfter all, the optimism that says that the world is already the best\r\npossible of all worlds might be regarded as the most cynical of\r\npessimisms. If this is the best possible, what would a world which was\r\nfundamentally bad be like? Meliorism is the belief that the specific\r\nconditions which exist at one moment, be they comparatively bad or\r\ncomparatively good, in any event may be bettered. It encourages\r\nintelligence to study the positive means of good and the obstructions to\r\ntheir realization, and to put forth endeavor for the improvement of\r\nconditions. It arouses confidence and a reasonable hopefulness as\r\noptimism does not. For the latter in declaring that good is already\r\nrealized in ultimate reality tends to make us gloss over the evils that\r\nconcretely exist. It becomes too readily the creed of those who live at\r\nease, in comfort, of those who have been suc\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_179\" id=\"Page_179\"\u003e[Pg 179]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003ecessful in obtaining this\r\nworld\u0027s rewards. Too readily optimism makes the men who hold it callous\r\nand blind to the sufferings of the less fortunate, or ready to find the\r\ncause of troubles of others in their personal viciousness. It thus\r\nco-operates with pessimism, in spite of the extreme nominal differences\r\nbetween the two, in benumbing sympathetic insight and intelligent effort\r\nin reform. It beckons men away from the world of relativity and change\r\ninto the calm of the absolute and eternal.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe import of many of these changes in moral attitude focusses in the\r\nidea of happiness. Happiness has often been made the object of the\r\nmoralists\u0027 contempt. Yet the most ascetic moralist has usually restored\r\nthe idea of happiness under some other name, such as bliss. Goodness\r\nwithout happiness, valor and virtue without satisfaction, ends without\r\nconscious enjoyment\u0026mdash;these things are as intolerable practically as they\r\nare self-contradictory in conception. Happiness is not, however, a bare\r\npossession; it is not a fixed attainment. Such a happiness is either the\r\nunworthy selfishness which moralists have so bitterly condemned, or it\r\nis, even if labelled bliss, an insipid tedium, a millennium of ease in\r\nrelief from all struggle and labor. It could satisfy only the most\r\ndelicate of molly-coddles. Happiness is found only in success; but\r\nsuccess means succeeding, getting forward, moving in advance. It is an\r\nactive\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_180\" id=\"Page_180\"\u003e[Pg 180]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e process, not a passive outcome. Accordingly it includes the\r\novercoming of obstacles, the elimination of sources of defect and ill.\r\nEsthetic sensitiveness and enjoyment are a large constituent in any\r\nworthy happiness. But the esthetic appreciation which is totally\r\nseparated from renewal of spirit, from re-creation of mind and\r\npurification of emotion is a weak and sickly thing, destined to speedy\r\ndeath from starvation. That the renewal and re-creation come\r\nunconsciously not by set intention but makes them the more genuine.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eUpon the whole, utilitarianism has marked the best in the transition\r\nfrom the classic theory of ends and goods to that which is now possible.\r\nIt had definite merits. It insisted upon getting away from vague\r\ngeneralities, and down to the specific and concrete. It subordinated law\r\nto human achievement instead of subordinating humanity to external law.\r\nIt taught that institutions are made for man and not man for\r\ninstitutions; it actively promoted all issues of reform. It made moral\r\ngood natural, humane, in touch with the natural goods of life. It\r\nopposed unearthly and other worldly morality. Above all, it acclimatized\r\nin human imagination the idea of social welfare as a supreme test. But\r\nit was still profoundly affected in fundamental points by old ways of\r\nthinking. It never questioned the idea of a fixed, final and supreme\r\nend. It only questioned the current notions as to the nature of this\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_181\" id=\"Page_181\"\u003e[Pg 181]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nend; and then inserted pleasure and the greatest possible aggregate of\r\npleasures in the position of the fixed end.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSuch a point of view treats concrete activities and specific interests\r\nnot as worth while in themselves, or as constituents of happiness, but\r\nas mere external means to getting pleasures. The upholders of the old\r\ntradition could therefore easily accuse utilitarianism of making not\r\nonly virtue but art, poetry, religion and the state into mere servile\r\nmeans of attaining sensuous enjoyments. Since pleasure was an outcome, a\r\nresult valuable on its own account independently of the active processes\r\nthat achieve it, happiness was a thing to be possessed and held onto.\r\nThe acquisitive instincts of man were exaggerated at the expense of the\r\ncreative. Production was of importance not because of the intrinsic\r\nworth of invention and reshaping the world, but because its external\r\nresults feed pleasure. Like every theory that sets up fixed and final\r\naims, in making the end passive and possessive, it made all active\r\noperations \u003ci\u003emere\u003c/i\u003e tools. Labor was an unavoidable evil to be minimized.\r\nSecurity in possession was the chief thing practically. Material comfort\r\nand ease were magnified in contrast with the pains and risk of\r\nexperimental creation.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThese deficiencies, under certain conceivable conditions, might have\r\nremained merely theoretical. But the disposition of the times and the\r\ninterests of those who\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_182\" id=\"Page_182\"\u003e[Pg 182]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e propagated the utilitarian ideas, endowed them\r\nwith power for social harm. In spite of the power of the new ideas in\r\nattacking old social abuses, there were elements in the teaching which\r\noperated or protected to sanction new social abuses. The reforming zeal\r\nwas shown in criticism of the evils inherited from the class system of\r\nfeudalism, evils economic, legal and political. But the new economic\r\norder of capitalism that was superseding feudalism brought its own\r\nsocial evils with it, and some of these ills utilitarianism tended to\r\ncover up or defend. The emphasis upon acquisition and possession of\r\nenjoyments took on an untoward color in connection with the contemporary\r\nenormous desire for wealth and the enjoyments it makes possible.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIf utilitarianism did not actively promote the new economic materialism,\r\nit had no means of combating it. Its general spirit of subordinating\r\nproductive activity to the bare product was indirectly favorable to the\r\ncause of an unadorned commercialism. In spite of its interest in a\r\nthoroughly social aim, utilitarianism fostered a new class interest,\r\nthat of the capitalistic property-owning interests, provided only\r\nproperty was obtained through free competition and not by governmental\r\nfavor. The stress that Bentham put on security tended to consecrate the\r\nlegal institution of private property provided only certain legal abuses\r\nin connection with its acquisition and transfer were\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_183\" id=\"Page_183\"\u003e[Pg 183]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e abolished. \u003ci\u003eBeati\r\npossidentes\u003c/i\u003e\u0026mdash;provided possessions had been obtained in accord with the\r\nrules of the competitive game\u0026mdash;without, that is, extraneous favors from\r\ngovernment. Thus utilitarianism gave intellectual confirmation to all\r\nthose tendencies which make \"business\" not a means of social service and\r\nan opportunity for personal growth in creative power but a way of\r\naccumulating the means of private enjoyments. Utilitarian ethics thus\r\nafford a remarkable example of the need of philosophic reconstruction\r\nwhich these lectures have been presenting. Up to a certain point, it\r\nreflected the meaning of modern thought and aspirations. But it was\r\nstill tied down by fundamental ideas of that very order which it thought\r\nit had completely left behind: The idea of a fixed and single end lying\r\nbeyond the diversity of human needs and acts rendered utilitarianism\r\nincapable of being an adequate representative of the modern spirit. It\r\nhas to be reconstructed through emancipation from its inherited\r\nelements.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIf a few words are added upon the topic of education, it is only for the\r\nsake of suggesting that the educative process is all one with the moral\r\nprocess, since the latter is a continuous passage of experience from\r\nworse to better. Education has been traditionally thought of as\r\npreparation: as learning, acquiring certain things because they will\r\nlater be useful. The end is remote, and education is getting ready, is a\r\npreliminary to some\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_184\" id=\"Page_184\"\u003e[Pg 184]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003ething more important to happen later on. Childhood\r\nis only a preparation for adult life, and adult life for another life.\r\nAlways the future, not the present, has been the significant thing in\r\neducation: Acquisition of knowledge and skill for future use and\r\nenjoyment; formation of habits required later in life in business, good\r\ncitizenship and pursuit of science. Education is thought of also as\r\nsomething needed by some human beings merely because of their dependence\r\nupon others. We are born ignorant, unversed, unskilled, immature, and\r\nconsequently in a state of social dependence. Instruction, training,\r\nmoral discipline are processes by which the mature, the adult, gradually\r\nraise the helpless to the point where they can look out for themselves.\r\nThe business of childhood is to grow into the independence of adulthood\r\nby means of the guidance of those who have already attained it. Thus the\r\nprocess of education as the main business of life ends when the young\r\nhave arrived at emancipation from social dependence.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThese two ideas, generally assumed but rarely explicitly reasoned out,\r\ncontravene the conception that growing, or the continuous reconstruction\r\nof experience, is the only end. If at whatever period we choose to take\r\na person, he is still in process of growth, then education is not, save\r\nas a by-product, a preparation for something coming later. Getting from\r\nthe present the degree\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_185\" id=\"Page_185\"\u003e[Pg 185]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e and kind of growth there is in it is education.\r\nThis is a constant function, independent of age. The best thing that can\r\nbe said about any special process of education, like that of the formal\r\nschool period, is that it renders its subject capable of further\r\neducation: more sensitive to conditions of growth and more able to take\r\nadvantage of them. Acquisition of skill, possession of knowledge,\r\nattainment of culture are not ends: they are marks of growth and means\r\nto its continuing.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe contrast usually assumed between the period of education as one of\r\nsocial dependence and of maturity as one of social independence does\r\nharm. We repeat over and over that man is a social animal, and then\r\nconfine the significance of this statement to the sphere in which\r\nsociality usually seems least evident, politics. The heart of the\r\nsociality of man is in education. The idea of education as preparation\r\nand of adulthood as a fixed limit of growth are two sides of the same\r\nobnoxious untruth. If the moral business of the adult as well as the\r\nyoung is a growing and developing experience, then the instruction that\r\ncomes from social dependencies and interdependencies are as important\r\nfor the adult as for the child. Moral independence for the adult means\r\narrest of growth, isolation means induration. We exaggerate the\r\nintellectual dependence of childhood so that children are too much kept\r\nin leading strings, and then we exaggerate the independence of adult\r\nlife from inti\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_186\" id=\"Page_186\"\u003e[Pg 186]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003emacy of contacts and communication with others. When the\r\nidentity of the moral process with the processes of specific growth is\r\nrealized, the more conscious and formal education of childhood will be\r\nseen to be the most economical and efficient means of social advance and\r\nreorganization, and it will also be evident that the test of all the\r\ninstitutions of adult life is their effect in furthering continued\r\neducation. Government, business, art, religion, all social institutions\r\nhave a meaning, a purpose. That purpose is to set free and to develop\r\nthe capacities of human individuals without respect to race, sex, class\r\nor economic status. And this is all one with saying that the test of\r\ntheir value is the extent to which they educate every individual into\r\nthe full stature of his possibility. Democracy has many meanings, but if\r\nit has a moral meaning, it is found in resolving that the supreme test\r\nof all political institutions and industrial arrangements shall be the\r\ncontribution they make to the all-around growth of every member of\r\nsociety.\u003c/p\u003e\u003chr class=\"chap\" /\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_187\" id=\"Page_187\"\u003e[Pg 187]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"CHAPTER_VIII\" id=\"CHAPTER_VIII\"\u003eCHAPTER VIII\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003eRECONSTRUCTION AS AFFECTING SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eHow can philosophic change seriously affect social philosophy? As far as\r\nfundamentals are concerned, every view and combination appears to have\r\nbeen formulated already. Society is composed of individuals: this\r\nobvious and basic fact no philosophy, whatever its pretensions to\r\nnovelty, can question or alter. Hence these three alternatives: Society\r\nmust exist for the sake of individuals; or individuals must have their\r\nends and ways of living set for them by society; or else society and\r\nindividuals are correlative, organic, to one another, society requiring\r\nthe service and subordination of individuals and at the same time\r\nexisting to serve them. Beyond these three views, none seems to be\r\nlogically conceivable. Moreover, while each of the three types includes\r\nmany subspecies and variations within itself, yet the changes seem to\r\nhave been so thoroughly rung that at most only minor variations are now\r\npossible.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eEspecially would it seem true that the \"organic\" conception meets all\r\nthe objections to the extreme individualistic and extreme socialistic\r\ntheories, avoiding the\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_188\" id=\"Page_188\"\u003e[Pg 188]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e errors alike of Plato and Bentham. Just because\r\nsociety is composed of individuals, it would seem that individuals and\r\nthe associative relations that hold them together must be of coequal\r\nimportance. Without strong and competent individuals, the bonds and ties\r\nthat form society have nothing to lay hold on. Apart from associations\r\nwith one another, individuals are isolated from one another and fade and\r\nwither; or are opposed to one another and their conflicts injure\r\nindividual development. Law, state, church, family, friendship,\r\nindustrial association, these and other institutions and arrangements\r\nare necessary in order that individuals may grow and find their specific\r\ncapacities and functions. Without their aid and support human life is,\r\nas Hobbes said, brutish, solitary, nasty.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWe plunge into the heart of the matter, by asserting that these various\r\ntheories suffer from a common defect. They are all committed to the\r\nlogic of general notions under which specific situations are to be\r\nbrought. What we want light upon is this or that group of individuals,\r\nthis or that concrete human being, this or that special institution or\r\nsocial arrangement. For such a logic of inquiry, the traditionally\r\naccepted logic substitutes discussion of the meaning of concepts and\r\ntheir dialectical relationship to one another. The discussion goes on in\r\nterms of \u003ci\u003ethe\u003c/i\u003e state, \u003ci\u003ethe\u003c/i\u003e individual; the nature of institutions as\r\nsuch, society in general.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_189\" id=\"Page_189\"\u003e[Pg 189]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWe need guidance in dealing with particular perplexities in domestic\r\nlife, and are met by dissertations on the Family or by assertions of the\r\nsacredness of individual Personality. We want to know about the worth of\r\nthe institution of private property as it operates under given\r\nconditions of definite time and place. We meet with the reply of\r\nProudhon that property generally is theft, or with that of Hegel that\r\nthe realization of will is the end of all institutions, and that private\r\nownership as the expression of mastery of personality over physical\r\nnature is a necessary element in such realization. Both answers may have\r\na certain suggestiveness in connection with specific situations. But the\r\nconceptions are not proffered for what they may be worth in connection\r\nwith special historic phenomena. They are general answers supposed to\r\nhave a universal meaning that covers and dominates all particulars.\r\nHence they do not assist inquiry. They close it. They are not\r\ninstrumentalities to be employed and tested in clarifying concrete\r\nsocial difficulties. They are ready-made principles to be imposed upon\r\nparticulars in order to determine their nature. They tell us about \u003ci\u003ethe\u003c/i\u003e\r\nstate when we want to know about \u003ci\u003esome\u003c/i\u003e state. But the implication is\r\nthat what is said about \u003ci\u003ethe\u003c/i\u003e state applies to any state that we happen\r\nto wish to know about.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIn transferring the issue from concrete situations to definitions and\r\nconceptual deductions, the effect, espe\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_190\" id=\"Page_190\"\u003e[Pg 190]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003ecially of the organic theory, is\r\nto supply the apparatus for intellectual justification of the\r\nestablished order. Those most interested in practical social progress\r\nand the emancipation of groups from oppression have turned a cold\r\nshoulder to the organic theory. The effect, if not the intention, of\r\nGerman idealism as applied in social philosophy was to provide a bulwark\r\nfor the maintenance of the political \u003ci\u003estatus quo\u003c/i\u003e against the tide of\r\nradical ideas coming from revolutionary France. Although Hegel asserted\r\nin explicit form that the end of states and institutions is to further\r\nthe realization of the freedom of all, his effect was to consecrate the\r\nPrussian State and to enshrine bureaucratic absolutism. Was this\r\napologetic tendency accidental, or did it spring from something in the\r\nlogic of the notions that were employed?\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSurely the latter. If we talk about \u003ci\u003ethe\u003c/i\u003e state and \u003ci\u003ethe\u003c/i\u003e individual,\r\nrather than about this or that political organization and this or that\r\ngroup of needy and suffering human beings, the tendency is to throw the\r\nglamor and prestige, the meaning and value attached to the general\r\nnotion, over the concrete situation and thereby to cover up the defects\r\nof the latter and disguise the need of serious reforms. The meanings\r\nwhich are found in the general notions are injected into the particulars\r\nthat come under them. Quite properly so if we once grant the logic of\r\nrigid universals under which the concrete cases\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_191\" id=\"Page_191\"\u003e[Pg 191]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e have to be subsumed in\r\norder to be understood and explained.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAgain, the tendency of the organic point of view is to minimize the\r\nsignificance of specific conflicts. Since the individual and the state\r\nor social institution are but two sides of the same reality, since they\r\nare already reconciled in principle and conception, the conflict in any\r\nparticular case can be but apparent. Since in theory the individual and\r\nthe state are reciprocally necessary and helpful to one another, why pay\r\nmuch attention to the fact that in \u003ci\u003ethis\u003c/i\u003e state a whole group of\r\nindividuals are suffering from oppressive conditions? In \"reality\" their\r\ninterests cannot be in conflict with those of the state to which they\r\nbelong; the opposition is only superficial and casual. Capital and labor\r\ncannot \"really\" conflict because each is an organic necessity to the\r\nother, and both to the organized community as a whole. There cannot\r\n\"really\" be any sex-problem because men and women are indispensable both\r\nto one another and to the state. In his day, Aristotle could easily\r\nemploy the logic of general concepts superior to individuals to show\r\nthat the institution of slavery was in the interests both of the state\r\nand of the slave class. Even if the intention is not to justify the\r\nexisting order the effect is to divert attention from special\r\nsituations. Rationalistic logic formerly made men careless in\r\nobservation of the concrete in physical philosophy. It now operates to\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_192\" id=\"Page_192\"\u003e[Pg 192]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\ndepress and retard observation in specific social phenomena. The social\r\nphilosopher, dwelling in the region of his concepts, \"solves\" problems\r\nby showing the relationship of ideas, instead of helping men solve\r\nproblems in the concrete by supplying them hypotheses to be used and\r\ntested in projects of reform.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eMeanwhile, of course, the concrete troubles and evils remain. They are\r\nnot magically waived out of existence because in theory society is\r\norganic. The region of concrete difficulties, where the assistance of\r\nintelligent method for tentative plans for experimentation is urgently\r\nneeded, is precisely where intelligence fails to operate. In this region\r\nof the specific and concrete, men are thrown back upon the crudest\r\nempiricism, upon short-sighted opportunism and the matching of brute\r\nforces. In theory, the particulars are all neatly disposed of; they come\r\nunder their appropriate heading and category; they are labelled and go\r\ninto an orderly pigeon-hole in a systematic filing cabinet, labelled\r\npolitical science or sociology. But in empirical fact they remain as\r\nperplexing, confused and unorganized as they were before. So they are\r\ndealt with not by even an endeavor at scientific method but by blind\r\nrule of thumb, citation of precedents, considerations of immediate\r\nadvantage, smoothing things over, use of coercive force and the clash of\r\npersonal ambitions. The world still survives; it has therefore got on\r\nsomehow:\u0026mdash;so\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_193\" id=\"Page_193\"\u003e[Pg 193]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e much cannot be denied. The method of trial and error and\r\ncompetition of selfishnesses has somehow wrought out many improvements.\r\nBut social theory nevertheless exists as an idle luxury rather than as a\r\nguiding method of inquiry and planning. In the question of methods\r\nconcerned with reconstruction of special situations rather than in any\r\nrefinements in the general concepts of institution, individuality,\r\nstate, freedom, law, order, progress, etc., lies the true impact of\r\nphilosophical reconstruction.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eConsider the conception of the individual self. The individualistic\r\nschool of England and France in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries\r\nwas empirical in intent. It based its individualism, philosophically\r\nspeaking, upon the belief that individuals are alone real, that classes\r\nand organizations are secondary and derived. They are artificial, while\r\nindividuals are natural. In what way then can individualism be said to\r\ncome under the animadversions that have been passed? To say the defect\r\nwas that this school overlooked those connections with other persons\r\nwhich are a part of the constitution of every individual is true as far\r\nas it goes; but unfortunately it rarely goes beyond the point of just\r\nthat wholesale justification of institutions which has been criticized.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe real difficulty is that the individual is regarded as something\r\n\u003ci\u003egiven\u003c/i\u003e, something already there. Conse\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_194\" id=\"Page_194\"\u003e[Pg 194]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003equently, he can only be\r\nsomething to be catered to, something whose pleasures are to be\r\nmagnified and possessions multiplied. When the individual is taken as\r\nsomething given already, anything that can be done to him or for him it\r\ncan only be by way of external impressions and belongings: sensations of\r\npleasure and pain, comforts, securities. Now it is true that social\r\narrangements, laws, institutions are made for man, rather than that man\r\nis made for them; that they are means and agencies of human welfare and\r\nprogress. But they are not means for obtaining something for\r\nindividuals, not even happiness. They are means of \u003ci\u003ecreating\u003c/i\u003e\r\nindividuals. Only in the physical sense of physical bodies that to the\r\nsenses are separate is individuality an original datum. Individuality in\r\na social and moral sense is something to be wrought out. It means\r\ninitiative, inventiveness, varied resourcefulness, assumption of\r\nresponsibility in choice of belief and conduct. These are not gifts, but\r\nachievements. As achievements, they are not absolute but relative to the\r\nuse that is to be made of them. And this use varies with the\r\nenvironment.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe import of this conception comes out in considering the fortunes of\r\nthe idea of self-interest. All members of the empirical school\r\nemphasized this idea. It was the sole motive of mankind. Virtue was to\r\nbe attained by making benevolent action profitable to the\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_195\" id=\"Page_195\"\u003e[Pg 195]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e individual;\r\nsocial arrangements were to be reformed so that egoism and altruistic\r\nconsideration of others would be identified. Moralists of the opposite\r\nschool were not backward in pointing out the evils of any theory that\r\nreduced both morals and political science to means of calculating\r\nself-interest. Consequently they threw the whole idea of interest\r\noverboard as obnoxious to morals. The effect of this reaction was to\r\nstrengthen the cause of authority and political obscurantism. When the\r\nplay of interest is eliminated, what remains? What concrete moving\r\nforces can be found? Those who identified the self with something\r\nready-made and its interest with acquisition of pleasure and profit took\r\nthe most effective means possible to reinstate the logic of abstract\r\nconceptions of law, justice, sovereignty, freedom, etc.\u0026mdash;all of those\r\nvague general ideas that for all their seeming rigidity can be\r\nmanipulated by any clever politician to cover up his designs and to make\r\nthe worse seem the better cause. Interests are specific and dynamic;\r\nthey are the natural terms of any concrete social thinking. But they are\r\ndamned beyond recovery when they are identified with the things of a\r\npetty selfishness. They can be employed as vital terms only when the\r\nself is seen to be in process, and interest to be a name for whatever is\r\nconcerned in furthering its movement.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe same logic applies to the old dispute of whether\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_196\" id=\"Page_196\"\u003e[Pg 196]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e reform should\r\nstart with the individual or with institutions. When the self is\r\nregarded as something complete within itself, then it is readily argued\r\nthat only internal moralistic changes are of importance in general\r\nreform. Institutional changes are said to be merely external. They may\r\nadd conveniences and comforts to life, but they cannot effect moral\r\nimprovements. The result is to throw the burden for social improvement\r\nupon free-will in its most impossible form. Moreover, social and\r\neconomic passivity are encouraged. Individuals are led to concentrate in\r\nmoral introspection upon their own vices and virtues, and to neglect the\r\ncharacter of the environment. Morals withdraw from active concern with\r\ndetailed economic and political conditions. Let us perfect ourselves\r\nwithin, and in due season changes in society will come of themselves is\r\nthe teaching. And while saints are engaged in introspection, burly\r\nsinners run the world. But when self-hood is perceived to be an active\r\nprocess it is also seen that social modifications are the only means of\r\nthe creation of changed personalities. Institutions are viewed in their\r\neducative effect:\u0026mdash;with reference to the types of individuals they\r\nfoster. The interest in individual moral improvement and the social\r\ninterest in objective reform of economic and political conditions are\r\nidentified. And inquiry into the meaning of social arrangements gets\r\ndefinite point and direction. We are led to ask what the specific\r\nstimulating, foster\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_197\" id=\"Page_197\"\u003e[Pg 197]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003eing and nurturing power of each specific social\r\narrangement may be. The old-time separation between politics and morals\r\nis abolished at its root.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eConsequently we cannot be satisfied with the general statement that\r\nsociety and the state is organic to the individual. The question is one\r\nof specific causations. Just what response does \u003ci\u003ethis\u003c/i\u003e social\r\narrangement, political or economic, evoke, and what effect does it have\r\nupon the disposition of those who engage in it? Does it release\r\ncapacity? If so, how widely? Among a few, with a corresponding\r\ndepression in others, or in an extensive and equitable way? Is the\r\ncapacity which is set free also directed in some coherent way, so that\r\nit becomes a power, or its manifestation spasmodic and capricious? Since\r\nresponses are of an indefinite diversity of kind, these inquiries have\r\nto be detailed and specific. Are men\u0027s senses rendered more delicately\r\nsensitive and appreciative, or are they blunted and dulled by this and\r\nthat form of social organization? Are their minds trained so that the\r\nhands are more deft and cunning? Is curiosity awakened or blunted? What\r\nis its quality: is it merely esthetic, dwelling on the forms and\r\nsurfaces of things or is it also an intellectual searching into their\r\nmeaning? Such questions as these (as well as the more obvious ones about\r\nthe qualities conventionally labelled moral), become the starting-points\r\nof inquiries about every institution of the community\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_198\" id=\"Page_198\"\u003e[Pg 198]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e when it is\r\nrecognized that individuality is not originally given but is created\r\nunder the influences of associated life. Like utilitarianism, the theory\r\nsubjects every form of organization to continual scrutiny and criticism.\r\nBut instead of leading us to ask what it does in the way of causing\r\npains and pleasures to individuals already in existence, it inquires\r\nwhat is done to release specific capacities and co-ordinate them into\r\nworking powers. What sort of individuals are created?\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe waste of mental energy due to conducting discussion of social\r\naffairs in terms of conceptual generalities is astonishing. How far\r\nwould the biologist and the physician progress if when the subject of\r\nrespiration is under consideration, discussion confined itself to\r\nbandying back and forth the concepts of organ and organism:\u0026mdash;If for\r\nexample one school thought respiration could be known and understood by\r\ninsisting upon the fact that it occurs in an individual body and\r\ntherefore is an \"individual\" phenomenon, while an opposite school\r\ninsisted that it is simply one function in organic interaction with\r\nothers and can be known or understood therefore only by reference to\r\nother functions taken in an equally general or wholesale way? Each\r\nproposition is equally true and equally futile. What is needed is\r\nspecific inquiries into a multitude of specific structures and\r\ninteractions. Not only does the solemn reiteration of categories of\r\nindividual and organic or\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_199\" id=\"Page_199\"\u003e[Pg 199]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e social whole not further these definite and\r\ndetailed inquiries, but it checks them. It detains thought within\r\npompous and sonorous generalities wherein controversy is as inevitable\r\nas it is incapable of solution. It is true enough that if cells were not\r\nin vital interaction with one another, they could neither conflict nor\r\nco-operate. But the fact of the existence of an \"organic\" social group,\r\ninstead of answering any questions merely marks the fact that questions\r\nexist: Just what conflicts and what co-operations occur, and what are\r\ntheir specific causes and consequences? But because of the persistence\r\nwithin social philosophy of the order of ideas that has been expelled\r\nfrom natural philosophy, even sociologists take conflict or co-operation\r\nas general categories upon which to base their science, and condescend\r\nto empirical facts only for illustrations. As a rule, their chief\r\n\"problem\" is a purely dialectical one, covered up by a thick quilt of\r\nempirical anthropological and historical citations: How do individuals\r\nunite to form society? How are individuals socially controlled? And the\r\nproblem is justly called dialectical because it springs from antecedent\r\nconceptions of \"individual\" and \"social.\"\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eJust as \"individual\" is not one thing, but is a blanket term for the\r\nimmense variety of specific reactions, habits, dispositions and powers\r\nof human nature that are evoked, and confirmed under the influences of\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_200\" id=\"Page_200\"\u003e[Pg 200]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\nassociated life, so with the term \"social.\" Society is one word, but\r\ninfinitely many things. It covers all the ways in which by associating\r\ntogether men share their experiences, and build up common interests and\r\naims; street gangs, schools for burglary, clans, social cliques, trades\r\nunions, joint stock corporations, villages and international alliances.\r\nThe new method takes effect in substituting inquiry into these specific,\r\nchanging and relative facts (relative to problems and purposes, not\r\nmetaphysically relative) for solemn manipulation of general notions.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eStrangely enough, the current conception of the state is a case in\r\npoint. For one direct influence of the classic order of fixed species\r\narranged in hierarchical order is the attempt of German political\r\nphilosophy in the nineteenth century to enumerate a definite number of\r\ninstitutions, each having its own essential and immutable meaning; to\r\narrange them in an order of \"evolution\" which corresponds with the\r\ndignity and rank of the respective meanings. The National State was\r\nplaced at the top as the consummation and culmination, and also the\r\nbasis of all other institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eHegel is a striking example of this industry, but he is far from the\r\nonly one. Many who have bitterly quarrelled with him, have only differed\r\nas to the details of the \"evolution\" or as to the particular meaning to\r\nbe attributed as essential \u003ci\u003eBegriff\u003c/i\u003e to some one of the\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_201\" id=\"Page_201\"\u003e[Pg 201]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e enumerated\r\ninstitutions. The quarrel has been bitter only because the underlying\r\npremises were the same. Particularly have many schools of thought,\r\nvarying even more widely in respect to method and conclusion, agreed\r\nupon the final consummating position of the state. They may not go as\r\nfar as Hegel in making the sole meaning of history to be the evolution\r\nof National Territorial States, each of which embodies more than the\r\nprior form of the essential meaning or conception of \u003ci\u003ethe\u003c/i\u003e State and\r\nconsequently displaces it, until we arrive at that triumph of historical\r\nevolution, the Prussian State. But they do not question the unique and\r\nsupreme position of the State in the social hierarchy. Indeed that\r\nconception has hardened into unquestionable dogma under the title of\r\nsovereignty.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThere can be no doubt of the tremendously important rôle played by the\r\nmodern territorial national state. The formation of these states has\r\nbeen the centre of modern political history. France, Great Britain,\r\nSpain were the first peoples to attain nationalistic organization, but\r\nin the nineteenth century their example was followed by Japan, Germany\r\nand Italy, to say nothing of a large number of smaller states, Greece,\r\nServia, Bulgaria, etc. As everybody knows, one of the most important\r\nphases of the recent world war was the struggle to complete the\r\nnationalistic movement, resulting in the erection of Bohemia, Poland,\r\netc., into independent\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_202\" id=\"Page_202\"\u003e[Pg 202]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e states, and the accession of Armenia, Palestine,\r\netc., to the rank of candidates.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe struggle for the supremacy of the State over other forms of\r\norganization was directed against the power of minor districts,\r\nprovinces, principalities, against the dispersion of power among feudal\r\nlords as well as, in some countries, against the pretensions of an\r\necclesiastic potentate. The \"State\" represents the conspicuous\r\nculmination of the great movement of social integration and\r\nconsolidation taking place in the last few centuries, tremendously\r\naccelerated by the concentrating and combining forces of steam and\r\nelectricity. Naturally, inevitably, the students of political science\r\nhave been preoccupied with this great historic phenomenon, and their\r\nintellectual activities have been directed to its systematic\r\nformulation. Because the contemporary progressive movement was to\r\nestablish the unified state against the inertia of minor social units\r\nand against the ambitions of rivals for power, political theory\r\ndeveloped the dogma of the sovereignty of the national state, internally\r\nand externally.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs the work of integration and consolidation reaches its climax, the\r\nquestion arises, however, whether the national state, once it is firmly\r\nestablished and no longer struggling against strong foes, is not just an\r\ninstrumentality for promoting and protecting other and more voluntary\r\nforms of association, rather than a supreme\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_203\" id=\"Page_203\"\u003e[Pg 203]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e end in itself. Two actual\r\nphenomena may be pointed to in support of an affirmative answer. Along\r\nwith the development of the larger, more inclusive and more unified\r\norganization of the state has gone the emancipation of individuals from\r\nrestrictions and servitudes previously imposed by custom and class\r\nstatus. But the individuals freed from external and coercive bonds have\r\nnot remained isolated. Social molecules have at once recombined in new\r\nassociations and organizations. Compulsory associations have been\r\nreplaced by voluntary ones; rigid organizations by those more amenable\r\nto human choice and purposes\u0026mdash;more directly changeable at will. What\r\nupon one side looks like a movement toward individualism, turns out to\r\nbe really a movement toward multiplying all kinds and varieties of\r\nassociations: Political parties, industrial corporations, scientific and\r\nartistic organizations, trade unions, churches, schools, clubs and\r\nsocieties without number, for the cultivation of every conceivable\r\ninterest that men have in common. As they develop in number and\r\nimportance, the state tends to become more and more a regulator and\r\nadjuster among them; defining the limits of their actions, preventing\r\nand settling conflicts.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIts \"supremacy\" approximates that of the conductor of an orchestra, who\r\nmakes no music himself but who harmonizes the activities of those who in\r\nproducing it are doing the thing intrinsically worth while. The\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_204\" id=\"Page_204\"\u003e[Pg 204]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e state\r\nremains highly important\u0026mdash;but its importance consists more and more in\r\nits power to foster and co-ordinate the activities of voluntary\r\ngroupings. Only nominally is it in any modern community the end for the\r\nsake of which all the other societies and organizations exist. Groupings\r\nfor promoting the diversity of goods that men share have become the real\r\nsocial units. They occupy the place which traditional theory has claimed\r\neither for mere isolated individuals or for the supreme and single\r\npolitical organization. Pluralism is well ordained in present political\r\npractice and demands a modification of hierarchical and monistic theory.\r\nEvery combination of human forces that adds its own contribution of\r\nvalue to life has for that reason its own unique and ultimate worth. It\r\ncannot be degraded into a means to glorify the State. One reason for the\r\nincreased demoralization of war is that it forces the State into an\r\nabnormally supreme position.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe other concrete fact is the opposition between the claim of\r\nindependent sovereignty in behalf of the territorial national state and\r\nthe growth of international and what have well been called\r\ntrans-national interests. The weal and woe of any modern state is bound\r\nup with that of others. Weakness, disorder, false principles on the part\r\nof any state are not confined within its boundaries. They spread and\r\ninfect other states. The same is true of economic, artistic and\r\nscientific advances.\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_205\" id=\"Page_205\"\u003e[Pg 205]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e Moreover the voluntary associations just spoken of\r\ndo not coincide with political boundaries. Associations of\r\nmathematicians, chemists, astronomers; business corporations, labor\r\norganizations, churches are trans-national because the interests they\r\nrepresent are worldwide. In such ways as these, internationalism is not\r\nan aspiration but a fact, not a sentimental ideal but a force. Yet these\r\ninterests are cut across and thrown out of gear by the traditional\r\ndoctrine of exclusive national sovereignty. It is the vogue of this\r\ndoctrine, or dogma, that presents the strongest barrier to the effective\r\nformation of an international mind which alone agrees with the moving\r\nforces of present-day labor, commerce, science, art and religion.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eSociety, as was said, is many associations not a single organization.\r\nSociety means association; coming together in joint intercourse and\r\naction for the better realization of any form of experience which is\r\naugmented and confirmed by being shared. Hence there are as many\r\nassociations as there are goods which are enhanced by being mutually\r\ncommunicated and participated in. And these are literally indefinite in\r\nnumber. Indeed, capacity to endure publicity and communication is the\r\ntest by which it is decided whether a pretended good is genuine or\r\nspurious. Moralists have always insisted upon the fact that good is\r\nuniversal, objective, not just private, particular. But too often, like\r\nPlato,\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_206\" id=\"Page_206\"\u003e[Pg 206]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e they have been content with a metaphysical universality or, like\r\nKant, with a logical universality. Communication, sharing, joint\r\nparticipation are the only actual ways of universalizing the moral law\r\nand end. We insisted at the last hour upon the unique character of every\r\nintrinsic good. But the counterpart of this proposition is that the\r\nsituation in which a good is consciously realized is not one of\r\ntransient sensations or private appetites but one of sharing and\r\ncommunication\u0026mdash;public, social. Even the hermit communes with gods or\r\nspirits; even misery loves company; and the most extreme selfishness\r\nincludes a band of followers or some partner to share in the attained\r\ngood. Universalization means socialization, the extension of the area\r\nand range of those who share in a good.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe increasing acknowledgment that goods exist and endure only through\r\nbeing communicated and that association is the means of conjoint sharing\r\nlies back of the modern sense of humanity and democracy. It is the\r\nsaving salt in altruism and philanthropy, which without this factor\r\ndegenerate into moral condescension and moral interference, taking the\r\nform of trying to regulate the affairs of others under the guise of\r\ndoing them good or of conferring upon them some right as if it were a\r\ngift of charity. It follows that organization is never an end in itself.\r\nIt is a means of promoting \u003ci\u003easso\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_207\" id=\"Page_207\"\u003e[Pg 207]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003eciation\u003c/i\u003e, of multiplying effective\r\npoints of contact between persons, directing their intercourse into the\r\nmodes of greatest fruitfulness.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe tendency to treat organization as an end in itself is responsible\r\nfor all the exaggerated theories in which individuals are subordinated\r\nto some institution to which is given the noble name of society. Society\r\nis the \u003ci\u003eprocess\u003c/i\u003e of associating in such ways that experiences, ideas,\r\nemotions, values are transmitted and made common. To this active\r\nprocess, both the individual and the institutionally organized may truly\r\nbe said to be subordinate. The individual is subordinate because except\r\nin and through communication of experience from and to others, he\r\nremains dumb, merely sentient, a brute animal. Only in association with\r\nfellows does he become a conscious centre of experience. Organization,\r\nwhich is what traditional theory has generally meant by the term Society\r\nor State, is also subordinate because it becomes static, rigid,\r\ninstitutionalized whenever it is not employed to facilitate and enrich\r\nthe contacts of human beings with one another.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eThe long-time controversy between rights and duties, law and freedom is\r\nanother version of the strife between the Individual and Society as\r\nfixed concepts. Freedom for an individual means growth, ready change\r\nwhen modification is required.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIt signifies an active process, that of release of\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_208\" id=\"Page_208\"\u003e[Pg 208]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e capacity from\r\nwhatever hems it in. But since society can develop only as new resources\r\nare put at its disposal, it is absurd to suppose that freedom has\r\npositive significance for individuality but negative meaning for social\r\ninterests. Society is strong, forceful, stable against accident only\r\nwhen all its members can function to the limit of their capacity. Such\r\nfunctioning cannot be achieved without allowing a leeway of\r\nexperimentation beyond the limits of established and sanctioned custom.\r\nA certain amount of overt confusion and irregularity is likely to\r\naccompany the granting of the margin of liberty without which capacity\r\ncannot find itself. But socially as well as scientifically the great\r\nthing is not to avoid mistakes but to have them take place under\r\nconditions such that they can be utilized to increase intelligence in\r\nthe future.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eIf British liberal social philosophy tended, true to the spirit of its\r\natomistic empiricism, to make freedom and the exercise of rights ends in\r\nthemselves, the remedy is not to be found in recourse to a philosophy of\r\nfixed obligations and authoritative law such as characterized German\r\npolitical thinking. The latter, as events have demonstrated, is\r\ndangerous because of its implicit menace to the free self-determination\r\nof other social groups. But it is also weak internally when put to the\r\nfinal test. In its hostility to the free experimentation and power of\r\nchoice of the individual in determining\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_209\" id=\"Page_209\"\u003e[Pg 209]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e social affairs, it limits the\r\ncapacity of many or most individuals to share effectively in social\r\noperations, and thereby deprives society of the full contribution of all\r\nits members. The best guarantee of collective efficiency and power is\r\nliberation and use of the diversity of individual capacities in\r\ninitiative, planning, foresight, vigor and endurance. Personality must\r\nbe educated, and personality cannot be educated by confining its\r\noperations to technical and specialized things, or to the less important\r\nrelationships of life. Full education comes only when there is a\r\nresponsible share on the part of each person, in proportion to capacity,\r\nin shaping the aims and policies of the social groups to which he\r\nbelongs. This fact fixes the significance of democracy. It cannot be\r\nconceived as a sectarian or racial thing nor as a consecration of some\r\nform of government which has already attained constitutional sanction.\r\nIt is but a name for the fact that human nature is developed only when\r\nits elements take part in directing things which are common, things for\r\nthe sake of which men and women form groups\u0026mdash;families, industrial\r\ncompanies, governments, churches, scientific associations and so on. The\r\nprinciple holds as much of one form of association, say in industry and\r\ncommerce, as it does in government. The identification of democracy with\r\npolitical democracy which is responsible for most of its failures is,\r\nhowever, based upon the traditional ideas which make the\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_210\" id=\"Page_210\"\u003e[Pg 210]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e individual and\r\nthe state ready-made entities in themselves.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eAs the new ideas find adequate expression in social life, they will be\r\nabsorbed into a moral background, and will the ideas and beliefs\r\nthemselves be deepened and be unconsciously transmitted and sustained.\r\nThey will color the imagination and temper the desires and affections.\r\nThey will not form a set of ideas to be expounded, reasoned out and\r\nargumentatively supported, but will be a spontaneous way of envisaging\r\nlife. Then they will take on religious value. The religious spirit will\r\nbe revivified because it will be in harmony with men\u0027s unquestioned\r\nscientific beliefs and their ordinary day-by-day social activities. It\r\nwill not be obliged to lead a timid, half-concealed and half-apologetic\r\nlife because tied to scientific ideas and social creeds that are\r\ncontinuously eaten into and broken down. But especially will the ideas\r\nand beliefs themselves be deepened and intensified because spontaneously\r\nfed by emotion and translated into imaginative vision and fine art,\r\nwhile they are now maintained by more or less conscious effort, by\r\ndeliberate reflection, by taking thought. They are technical and\r\nabstract just because they are not as yet carried as matter of course by\r\nimagination and feelings.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eWe began by pointing out that European philosophy arose when\r\nintellectual methods and scientific results\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_211\" id=\"Page_211\"\u003e[Pg 211]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e moved away from social\r\ntraditions which had consolidated and embodied the fruits of spontaneous\r\ndesire and fancy. It was pointed out that philosophy had ever since had\r\nthe problem of adjusting the dry, thin and meagre scientific standpoint\r\nwith the obstinately persisting body of warm and abounding imaginative\r\nbeliefs. Conceptions of possibility, progress, free movement and\r\ninfinitely diversified opportunity have been suggested by modern\r\nscience. But until they have displaced from \u003ci\u003eimagination\u003c/i\u003e the heritage\r\nof the immutable and the once-for-all ordered and systematized, the\r\nideas of mechanism and matter will lie like a dead weight upon the\r\nemotions, paralyzing religion and distorting art. When the liberation of\r\ncapacity no longer seems a menace to organization and established\r\ninstitutions, something that cannot be avoided practically and yet\r\nsomething that is a threat to conservation of the most precious values\r\nof the past, when the liberating of human capacity operates as a\r\nsocially creative force, art will not be a luxury, a stranger to the\r\ndaily occupations of making a living. Making a living economically\r\nspeaking, will be at one with making a life that is worth living. And\r\nwhen the emotional force, the mystic force one might say, of\r\ncommunication, of the miracle of shared life and shared experience is\r\nspontaneously felt, the hardness and crudeness of contemporary life will\r\nbe bathed in the light that never was on land or sea.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_212\" id=\"Page_212\"\u003e[Pg 212]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003ePoetry, art, religion are precious things. They cannot be maintained by\r\nlingering in the past and futilely wishing to restore what the movement\r\nof events in science, industry and politics has destroyed. They are an\r\nout-flowering of thought and desires that unconsciously converge into a\r\ndisposition of imagination as a result of thousands and thousands of\r\ndaily episodes and contact. They cannot be willed into existence or\r\ncoerced into being. The wind of the spirit bloweth where it listeth and\r\nthe kingdom of God in such things does not come with observation. But\r\nwhile it is impossible to retain and recover by deliberate volition old\r\nsources of religion and art that have been discredited, it is possible\r\nto expedite the development of the vital sources of a religion and art\r\nthat are yet to be. Not indeed by action directly aimed at their\r\nproduction, but by substituting faith in the active tendencies of the\r\nday for dread and dislike of them, and by the courage of intelligence to\r\nfollow whither social and scientific changes direct us. We are weak\r\ntoday in ideal matters because intelligence is divorced from aspiration.\r\nThe bare force of circumstance compels us onwards in the daily detail of\r\nour beliefs and acts, but our deeper thoughts and desires turn\r\nbackwards. When philosophy shall have co-operated with the course of\r\nevents and made clear and coherent the meaning of the daily detail,\r\nscience and emotion will interpenetrate, practice and\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_213\" id=\"Page_213\"\u003e[Pg 213]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e imagination will\r\nembrace. Poetry and religious feeling will be the unforced flowers of\r\nlife. To further this articulation and revelation of the meanings of the\r\ncurrent course of events is the task and problem of philosophy in days\r\nof transition.\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003chr class=\"chap\" /\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_217\" id=\"Page_217\"\u003e[Pg 217]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003ca name=\"INDEX\" id=\"INDEX\"\u003eINDEX\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\r\nAbsolute reality, \u003ca href=\"#Page_23\"\u003e23\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_27\"\u003e27\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAbsolutism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_97\"\u003e97\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_190\"\u003e190\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eKant and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_99\"\u003e99\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAbstract definition, \u003ca href=\"#Page_20\"\u003e20\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAbstractions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_149\"\u003e149\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_150\"\u003e150\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_174\"\u003e174\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAbsurdities, \u003ca href=\"#Page_10\"\u003e10\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAchievements, \u003ca href=\"#Page_194\"\u003e194\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAction, kind of, \u003ca href=\"#Page_80\"\u003e80\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAdult life, \u003ca href=\"#Page_185\"\u003e185\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_186\"\u003e186\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAmerica, \u003ca href=\"#Page_41\"\u003e41\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAmoeba, \u003ca href=\"#Page_91\"\u003e91\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAnimals, dramatisation in primitive life of man, \u003ca href=\"#Page_4\"\u003e4\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAntiquity, \u003ca href=\"#Page_33\"\u003e33\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nApprehension, \u003ca href=\"#Page_142\"\u003e142\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003ca name=\"Aquinas\" id=\"Aquinas\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eAquinas, \u003ca href=\"#Page_55\"\u003e55\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_106\"\u003e106\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nArgumentation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_31\"\u003e31\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_132\"\u003e132\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAristotle, \u003ca href=\"#Page_13\"\u003e13\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_17\"\u003e17\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_19\"\u003e19\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_55\"\u003e55\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eBacon\u0027s charge against, \u003ca href=\"#Page_30\"\u003e30\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_31\"\u003e31\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_36\"\u003e36\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003edistinction in ends, \u003ca href=\"#Page_171\"\u003e171\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eexperience, \u003ca href=\"#Page_79\"\u003e79\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_80\"\u003e80\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eforms, \u003ca href=\"#Page_105\"\u003e105\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eon change, \u003ca href=\"#Page_107\"\u003e107\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eon philosophy as contemplation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_109\"\u003e109\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_110\"\u003e110\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eon slavery, \u003ca href=\"#Page_191\"\u003e191\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003etheory of the state, \u003ca href=\"#Page_44\"\u003e44\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eultimate reality, \u003ca href=\"#Page_106\"\u003e106\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nArt, \u003ca href=\"#Page_34\"\u003e34\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_103\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_211\"\u003e211\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_212\"\u003e212\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nArtisan, \u003ca href=\"#Page_15\"\u003e15\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eknowledge, \u003ca href=\"#Page_110\"\u003e110\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAssociations, \u003ca href=\"#Page_205\"\u003e205\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003evoluntary, \u003ca href=\"#Page_203\"\u003e203\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAstronomers, \u003ca href=\"#Page_65\"\u003e65\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_113\"\u003e113\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAstronomy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_75\"\u003e75\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAthenians, \u003ca href=\"#Page_13\"\u003e13\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_19\"\u003e19\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAugustine, St., \u003ca href=\"#Page_111\"\u003e111\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nAuthority, \u003ca href=\"#Page_48\"\u003e48\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_139\"\u003e139\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_195\"\u003e195\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003efinal, \u003ca href=\"#Page_161\"\u003e161\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eseat of, \u003ca href=\"#Page_160\"\u003e160\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003e\u003ci\u003eSee also\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Final_good\"\u003eFinal good\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBacon, Francis, \u003ca href=\"#Page_28\"\u003e28\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_81\"\u003e81\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_97\"\u003e97\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ecriticism of the learning of his day, \u003ca href=\"#Page_29\"\u003e29\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_30\"\u003e30\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eexperience, \u003ca href=\"#Page_97\"\u003e97\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_98\"\u003e98\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003e\"knowledge is power,\" \u003ca href=\"#Page_29\"\u003e29\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esummary of ideas, \u003ca href=\"#Page_29\"\u003e29\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBeing, perfect, \u003ca href=\"#Page_111\"\u003e111\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBeing and non-being, \u003ca href=\"#Page_107\"\u003e107\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBeliefs and facts, \u003ca href=\"#Page_12\"\u003e12\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBentham, \u003ca href=\"#Page_166\"\u003e166\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_182\"\u003e182\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_188\"\u003e188\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBergson, \u003ca href=\"#Page_71\"\u003e71\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBerkeley, \u003ca href=\"#Page_50\"\u003e50\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBiology, \u003ca href=\"#Page_75\"\u003e75\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_84\"\u003e84\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBliss, \u003ca href=\"#Page_111\"\u003e111\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_112\"\u003e112\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBosanquet, \u003ca href=\"#Page_134\"\u003e134\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBradley, \u003ca href=\"#Page_107\"\u003e107\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBruno, \u003ca href=\"#Page_66\"\u003e66\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBusiness, \u003ca href=\"#Page_41\"\u003e41\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_43\"\u003e43\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_183\"\u003e183\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nButler, Bishop, \u003ca href=\"#Page_21\"\u003e21\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCapital, \u003ca href=\"#Page_43\"\u003e43\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCapital and labour, \u003ca href=\"#Page_191\"\u003e191\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCapitalism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_41\"\u003e41\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_182\"\u003e182\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCastes, material, \u003ca href=\"#Page_59\"\u003e59\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCasuistry, \u003ca href=\"#Page_166\"\u003e166\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCausation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_63\"\u003e63\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCauses, \u003ca href=\"#Page_59\"\u003e59\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_60\"\u003e60\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCertainty, \u003ca href=\"#Page_21\"\u003e21\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_22\"\u003e22\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nChange, ancient idea of, \u003ca href=\"#Page_57\"\u003e57\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eexisting view, \u003ca href=\"#Page_113\"\u003e113\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003elaw of the universe, \u003ca href=\"#Page_61\"\u003e61\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ePlato and Aristotle on, \u003ca href=\"#Page_107\"\u003e107\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eprogress and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_116\"\u003e116\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nChemistry, \u003ca href=\"#Page_75\"\u003e75\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nChild life, \u003ca href=\"#Page_91\"\u003e91\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_92\"\u003e92\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_184\"\u003e184\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nChristian mediaeval philosophy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_17\"\u003e17\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_19\"\u003e19\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nChristian theology, \u003ca href=\"#Page_111\"\u003e111\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nChurch, \u003ca href=\"#Page_47\"\u003e47\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003euniversal, \u003ca href=\"#Page_45\"\u003e45\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nClasses, \u003ca href=\"#Page_75\"\u003e75\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_152\"\u003e152\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_155\"\u003e155\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ein the ancient conception of the world, \u003ca href=\"#Page_59\"\u003e59\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_218\" id=\"Page_218\"\u003e[Pg 218]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nClassic conception of philosophy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_17\"\u003e17\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_22\"\u003e22\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_24\"\u003e24\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_74\"\u003e74\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_105\"\u003e105\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nClassification, \u003ca href=\"#Page_152\"\u003e152\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_169\"\u003e169\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCommon sense, \u003ca href=\"#Page_100\"\u003e100\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCommunication at a distance, \u003ca href=\"#Page_118\"\u003e118\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_120\"\u003e120\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nComte, Auguste, \u003ca href=\"#Page_10\"\u003e10\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nConceptions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_81\"\u003e81\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_144\"\u003e144\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_145\"\u003e145\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ereconstruction in, moral, \u003ca href=\"#Page_161\"\u003e161\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003etruth, \u003ca href=\"#Page_156\"\u003e156\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nConcrete cases, in morals, \u003ca href=\"#Page_161\"\u003e161\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ein social philosophy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_188\"\u003e188\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nConcreteness, \u003ca href=\"#Page_150\"\u003e150\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCondillac, \u003ca href=\"#Page_81\"\u003e81\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nConduct, \u003ca href=\"#Page_80\"\u003e80\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eright course, \u003ca href=\"#Page_163\"\u003e163\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nConflict, \u003ca href=\"#Page_108\"\u003e108\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_138\"\u003e138\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_140\"\u003e140\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eof ends, \u003ca href=\"#Page_166\"\u003e166\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nConscience, \u003ca href=\"#Page_46\"\u003e46\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nConsequences, investigating, \u003ca href=\"#Page_163\"\u003e163\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_164\"\u003e164\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nConservatism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_18\"\u003e18\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_33\"\u003e33\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_40\"\u003e40\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_100\"\u003e100\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nConstant, \u003ca href=\"#Page_61\"\u003e61\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nContemplation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_109\"\u003e109\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_111\"\u003e111\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nContract theory of the state, \u003ca href=\"#Page_45\"\u003e45\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nControl, \u003ca href=\"#Page_42\"\u003e42\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_64\"\u003e64\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCo-operation in research, \u003ca href=\"#Page_37\"\u003e37\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCosmogonies and cosmologies, \u003ca href=\"#Page_9\"\u003e9\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCosmology, \u003ca href=\"#Page_70\"\u003e70\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_75\"\u003e75\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCraftsmen, \u003ca href=\"#Page_12\"\u003e12\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_13\"\u003e13\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCriteria, \u003ca href=\"#Page_77\"\u003e77\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCrusades, \u003ca href=\"#Page_39\"\u003e39\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCults, \u003ca href=\"#Page_8\"\u003e8\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003econsolidation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_9\"\u003e9\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nCustom, \u003ca href=\"#Page_17\"\u003e17\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_161\"\u003e161\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDante, \u003ca href=\"#Page_55\"\u003e55\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDarwin, \u003ca href=\"#Page_75\"\u003e75\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDeduction, \u003ca href=\"#Page_148\"\u003e148\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDelusions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_139\"\u003e139\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDemocracy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_47\"\u003e47\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_186\"\u003e186\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_206\"\u003e206\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eof facts, \u003ca href=\"#Page_66\"\u003e66\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esignificance, \u003ca href=\"#Page_209\"\u003e209\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDemonstration, \u003ca href=\"#Page_20\"\u003e20\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_21\"\u003e21\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_31\"\u003e31\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ediscovery vs., \u003ca href=\"#Page_32\"\u003e32\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDescartes, \u003ca href=\"#Page_50\"\u003e50\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDesires, \u003ca href=\"#Page_110\"\u003e110\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_111\"\u003e111\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003efrustration, \u003ca href=\"#Page_104\"\u003e104\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDetails, \u003ca href=\"#Page_141\"\u003e141\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDevelopment, Aristotle\u0027s use of term, \u003ca href=\"#Page_57\"\u003e57\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_58\"\u003e58\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDiagnosis, \u003ca href=\"#Page_142\"\u003e142\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDirection, \u003ca href=\"#Page_176\"\u003e176\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDisagreeable, \u003ca href=\"#Page_103\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDiscipline, \u003ca href=\"#Page_103\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_104\"\u003e104\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_184\"\u003e184\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDiscord, \u003ca href=\"#Page_108\"\u003e108\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDiscovery, contacts of 16th and 17th centuries, \u003ca href=\"#Page_39\"\u003e39\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003edemonstration vs., \u003ca href=\"#Page_32\"\u003e32\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003elogic of, \u003ca href=\"#Page_31\"\u003e31\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_33\"\u003e33\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emoral, \u003ca href=\"#Page_174\"\u003e174\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDistance, \u003ca href=\"#Page_118\"\u003e118\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_119\"\u003e119\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_120\"\u003e120\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDoctrines, \u003ca href=\"#Page_8\"\u003e8\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003econsolidation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_9\"\u003e9\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDogma, \u003ca href=\"#Page_145\"\u003e145\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_159\"\u003e159\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDreams, \u003ca href=\"#Page_119\"\u003e119\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_120\"\u003e120\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_139\"\u003e139\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eworld of, \u003ca href=\"#Page_7\"\u003e7\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDualism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_173\"\u003e173\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nDuties and rights, \u003ca href=\"#Page_207\"\u003e207\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEarth, ancient conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_55\"\u003e55\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003erelation to universe, \u003ca href=\"#Page_66\"\u003e66\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEconomic ends, \u003ca href=\"#Page_171\"\u003e171\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_172\"\u003e172\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEducation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_125\"\u003e125\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_183\"\u003e183\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_209\"\u003e209\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEfficient cause, \u003ca href=\"#Page_59\"\u003e59\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_60\"\u003e60\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEmotion, \u003ca href=\"#Page_103\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_210\"\u003e210\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEmpirical and rational, \u003ca href=\"#Page_81\"\u003e81\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_87\"\u003e87\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEmpiricists, \u003ca href=\"#Page_78\"\u003e78\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_82\"\u003e82\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEnds, conflicting, \u003ca href=\"#Page_166\"\u003e166\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003efixed, \u003ca href=\"#Page_70\"\u003e70\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eintrinsic and instrumental, \u003ca href=\"#Page_170\"\u003e170\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_172\"\u003e172\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_173\"\u003e173\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emeans and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_72\"\u003e72\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_73\"\u003e73\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003evalues, \u003ca href=\"#Page_175\"\u003e175\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEnglish empiricism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_99\"\u003e99\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEnvironment, \u003ca href=\"#Page_10\"\u003e10\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003elife and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_84\"\u003e84\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEpistemology, \u003ca href=\"#Page_49\"\u003e49\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_70\"\u003e70\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_123\"\u003e123\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_126\"\u003e126\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nErrors, \u003ca href=\"#Page_35\"\u003e35\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEsthetic and practical, \u003ca href=\"#Page_66\"\u003e66\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEstheticism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_115\"\u003e115\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_116\"\u003e116\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_117\"\u003e117\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_180\"\u003e180\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003escience and, reconciling, \u003ca href=\"#Page_127\"\u003e127\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEther, \u003ca href=\"#Page_55\"\u003e55\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_56\"\u003e56\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEthical theory, \u003ca href=\"#Page_161\"\u003e161\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEurope, nationalistic movement, \u003ca href=\"#Page_201\"\u003e201\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esocial cause of intellectual revolution in 16th and 17th centuries, \u003ca href=\"#Page_38\"\u003e38\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_39\"\u003e39\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEvil, problem of, \u003ca href=\"#Page_177\"\u003e177\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nEvolution, in Aristotle, \u003ca href=\"#Page_58\"\u003e58\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eof the state, \u003ca href=\"#Page_200\"\u003e200\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_201\"\u003e201\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nExistence, two realms, \u003ca href=\"#Page_22\"\u003e22\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_219\" id=\"Page_219\"\u003e[Pg 219]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nExperience, \u003ca href=\"#Page_32\"\u003e32\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eas a guide in science and moral life, \u003ca href=\"#Page_78\"\u003e78\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ebasis of old notion of, \u003ca href=\"#Page_79\"\u003e79\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003echanged conceptions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_77\"\u003e77\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eclassic notion and modern, \u003ca href=\"#Page_81\"\u003e81\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ecombined doing and suffering, \u003ca href=\"#Page_86\"\u003e86\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eevil result of unimaginative conception of, \u003ca href=\"#Page_100\"\u003e100\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_101\"\u003e101\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eGreek, \u003ca href=\"#Page_79\"\u003e79\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emodern appeal to, \u003ca href=\"#Page_48\"\u003e48\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003enew conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_83\"\u003e83\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ePlato, \u003ca href=\"#Page_92\"\u003e92\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eprinciples and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_48\"\u003e48\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eself-regulative, \u003ca href=\"#Page_94\"\u003e94\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_95\"\u003e95\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003etrue \"stuff\" of, \u003ca href=\"#Page_91\"\u003e91\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nExperimental method, \u003ca href=\"#Page_13\"\u003e13\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nExperimentation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_42\"\u003e42\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nExploration, \u003ca href=\"#Page_39\"\u003e39\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_40\"\u003e40\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFacing facts, \u003ca href=\"#Page_140\"\u003e140\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_141\"\u003e141\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_143\"\u003e143\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFacts, \u003ca href=\"#Page_10\"\u003e10\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_98\"\u003e98\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFalsity, \u003ca href=\"#Page_158\"\u003e158\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFamily principle, \u003ca href=\"#Page_189\"\u003e189\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ein the world at large, \u003ca href=\"#Page_61\"\u003e61\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_62\"\u003e62\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFanaticism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_168\"\u003e168\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFancy. \u003ci\u003eSee\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Imagination\"\u003eImagination\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFear, \u003ca href=\"#Page_40\"\u003e40\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFeudalism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_43\"\u003e43\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_45\"\u003e45\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eof the universe in ancient conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_59\"\u003e59\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_61\"\u003e61\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_62\"\u003e62\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFighting, \u003ca href=\"#Page_15\"\u003e15\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFinal cause, \u003ca href=\"#Page_59\"\u003e59\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_60\"\u003e60\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_68\"\u003e68\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003ca name=\"Final_good\" id=\"Final_good\"\u003eFinal good\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_161\"\u003e161\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_162\"\u003e162\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_183\"\u003e183\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eexistence of a single good questioned, \u003ca href=\"#Page_162\"\u003e162\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFine arts, \u003ca href=\"#Page_126\"\u003e126\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFinite, \u003ca href=\"#Page_107\"\u003e107\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFinite and infinite, \u003ca href=\"#Page_66\"\u003e66\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFire, \u003ca href=\"#Page_11\"\u003e11\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_56\"\u003e56\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_86\"\u003e86\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFixed ends, \u003ca href=\"#Page_165\"\u003e165\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFlux, \u003ca href=\"#Page_57\"\u003e57\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_108\"\u003e108\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFormal cause, \u003ca href=\"#Page_59\"\u003e59\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_60\"\u003e60\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nForms of Aristotle, \u003ca href=\"#Page_105\"\u003e105\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFree will, \u003ca href=\"#Page_196\"\u003e196\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFreedom, law and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_207\"\u003e207\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ereligious, \u003ca href=\"#Page_46\"\u003e46\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFuture, \u003ca href=\"#Page_48\"\u003e48\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nFuture aim of philosophy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_26\"\u003e26\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGeneral notions, in morals, \u003ca href=\"#Page_161\"\u003e161\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ein social philosophy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_188\"\u003e188\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGeneralities, \u003ca href=\"#Page_174\"\u003e174\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esocial affairs and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_198\"\u003e198\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGeneralisations, \u003ca href=\"#Page_10\"\u003e10\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_151\"\u003e151\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGeology, \u003ca href=\"#Page_75\"\u003e75\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGerman political philosophy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_200\"\u003e200\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_208\"\u003e208\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_209\"\u003e209\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGerman rationalism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_99\"\u003e99\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGermans, system, order, docility, \u003ca href=\"#Page_98\"\u003e98\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_99\"\u003e99\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGermany, \u003ca href=\"#Page_19\"\u003e19\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGod, \u003ca href=\"#Page_10\"\u003e10\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_109\"\u003e109\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGolden Age, \u003ca href=\"#Page_48\"\u003e48\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGood. \u003ci\u003eSee\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Final_good\"\u003eFinal good\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGoodness, \u003ca href=\"#Page_179\"\u003e179\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGreeks, \u003ca href=\"#Page_9\"\u003e9\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_13\"\u003e13\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_19\"\u003e19\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_66\"\u003e66\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_67\"\u003e67\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_126\"\u003e126\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eethical theory, \u003ca href=\"#Page_161\"\u003e161\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ereligion, \u003ca href=\"#Page_105\"\u003e105\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003escience and arts, \u003ca href=\"#Page_93\"\u003e93\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nGrowth, \u003ca href=\"#Page_184\"\u003e184\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eof knowledge, \u003ca href=\"#Page_31\"\u003e31\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emoral, \u003ca href=\"#Page_177\"\u003e177\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHappiness, \u003ca href=\"#Page_179\"\u003e179\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHealthy living, \u003ca href=\"#Page_166\"\u003e166\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_167\"\u003e167\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_177\"\u003e177\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHeavens, ancient conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_56\"\u003e56\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHegel, \u003ca href=\"#Page_19\"\u003e19\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_106\"\u003e106\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_189\"\u003e189\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_190\"\u003e190\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003econception of the state, \u003ca href=\"#Page_200\"\u003e200\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_201\"\u003e201\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003elogic, \u003ca href=\"#Page_134\"\u003e134\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHelvetius, \u003ca href=\"#Page_81\"\u003e81\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHierarchical order, \u003ca href=\"#Page_59\"\u003e59\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\"Higher\" ends, \u003ca href=\"#Page_172\"\u003e172\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHindoos, \u003ca href=\"#Page_126\"\u003e126\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHistory, Hegel\u0027s conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_201\"\u003e201\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHistory of philosophy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_25\"\u003e25\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHobbes, \u003ca href=\"#Page_88\"\u003e88\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_188\"\u003e188\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003ci\u003eHomo faber\u003c/i\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_71\"\u003e71\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHuman aims, \u003ca href=\"#Page_42\"\u003e42\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_43\"\u003e43\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHuman life, \"real\" and \"ideal,\" a live issue, \u003ca href=\"#Page_128\"\u003e128\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHumanism and naturalism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_174\"\u003e174\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHumanity, \u003ca href=\"#Page_206\"\u003e206\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHume, \u003ca href=\"#Page_50\"\u003e50\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_83\"\u003e83\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_89\"\u003e89\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHypotheses, \u003ca href=\"#Page_22\"\u003e22\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_145\"\u003e145\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nHysteria, \u003ca href=\"#Page_139\"\u003e139\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIdeal, changed conceptions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_103\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_220\" id=\"Page_220\"\u003e[Pg 220]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eproblem of relation to the real, \u003ca href=\"#Page_130\"\u003e130\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ereal and, a human issue, \u003ca href=\"#Page_128\"\u003e128\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIdeal realm, classic and modern conceptions contrasted, \u003ca href=\"#Page_118\"\u003e118\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIdealism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_129\"\u003e129\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eepistemological, \u003ca href=\"#Page_49\"\u003e49\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_51\"\u003e51\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003etheological, \u003ca href=\"#Page_50\"\u003e50\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003etragic kind, \u003ca href=\"#Page_129\"\u003e129\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_130\"\u003e130\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIdeality, one with reality, \u003ca href=\"#Page_111\"\u003e111\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ephilosophic conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_106\"\u003e106\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIdeas of Plato, \u003ca href=\"#Page_105\"\u003e105\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIdols, \u003ca href=\"#Page_36\"\u003e36\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003ca name=\"Ills\" id=\"Ills\"\u003eIlls\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_169\"\u003e169\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ephilosophy and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_177\"\u003e177\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_178\"\u003e178\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003ca name=\"Imagination\" id=\"Imagination\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eImagination, \u003ca href=\"#Page_211\"\u003e211\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eempirical knowledge and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_73\"\u003e73\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_74\"\u003e74\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ereshaping power, \u003ca href=\"#Page_103\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_106\"\u003e106\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIndependence, \u003ca href=\"#Page_110\"\u003e110\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esocial, \u003ca href=\"#Page_185\"\u003e185\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIndia, \u003ca href=\"#Page_41\"\u003e41\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIndividual, \u003ca href=\"#Page_36\"\u003e36\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_45\"\u003e45\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_51\"\u003e51\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003econcept as something given, \u003ca href=\"#Page_193\"\u003e193\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ein social and moral sense, \u003ca href=\"#Page_194\"\u003e194\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esocial and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_199\"\u003e199\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003estate and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_190\"\u003e190\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_191\"\u003e191\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIndividualism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_50\"\u003e50\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003epolitical, \u003ca href=\"#Page_45\"\u003e45\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_46\"\u003e46\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ereligious, \u003ca href=\"#Page_46\"\u003e46\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ereligious and moral, \u003ca href=\"#Page_46\"\u003e46\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInduction, \u003ca href=\"#Page_34\"\u003e34\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIndustrial revolution and scientific revolution, \u003ca href=\"#Page_38\"\u003e38\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_41\"\u003e41\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIndustry, movements, \u003ca href=\"#Page_47\"\u003e47\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003escience and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_38\"\u003e38\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_41\"\u003e41\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_42\"\u003e42\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInfinite, \u003ca href=\"#Page_66\"\u003e66\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_67\"\u003e67\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInitiative \u003ca href=\"#Page_46\"\u003e46\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_209\"\u003e209\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInnate ideas, \u003ca href=\"#Page_35\"\u003e35\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_82\"\u003e82\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003ca name=\"Inquiry\" id=\"Inquiry\"\u003eInquiry\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_174\"\u003e174\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003efree, \u003ca href=\"#Page_146\"\u003e146\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eimpartial, \u003ca href=\"#Page_147\"\u003e147\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emethods in moral ills, \u003ca href=\"#Page_170\"\u003e170\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInsincerity, \u003ca href=\"#Page_20\"\u003e20\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInstability, \u003ca href=\"#Page_107\"\u003e107\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInstitutions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_196\"\u003e196\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003etrue starting-points of inquiry about, \u003ca href=\"#Page_197\"\u003e197\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInstrumental ends, \u003ca href=\"#Page_171\"\u003e171\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIntellect, \u003ca href=\"#Page_6\"\u003e6\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIntellectual somnambulism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_140\"\u003e140\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIntellectualism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_117\"\u003e117\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIntelligence, \u003ca href=\"#Page_36\"\u003e36\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_51\"\u003e51\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eas inquiry into consequences, \u003ca href=\"#Page_163\"\u003e163\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_164\"\u003e164\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003edefinition, \u003ca href=\"#Page_96\"\u003e96\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInterest, \u003ca href=\"#Page_194\"\u003e194\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_195\"\u003e195\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInternational interests, \u003ca href=\"#Page_204\"\u003e204\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_205\"\u003e205\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIntrinsic good, \u003ca href=\"#Page_170\"\u003e170\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_206\"\u003e206\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIntrospection, \u003ca href=\"#Page_196\"\u003e196\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInvention, \u003ca href=\"#Page_39\"\u003e39\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_42\"\u003e42\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_49\"\u003e49\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_122\"\u003e122\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nInvestigation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_147\"\u003e147\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003ci\u003eIpse dixit\u003c/i\u003e method, \u003ca href=\"#Page_166\"\u003e166\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nIrresponsibility, \u003ca href=\"#Page_97\"\u003e97\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nJames, William, \u003ca href=\"#Page_21\"\u003e21\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ePragmatism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_38\"\u003e38\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nJudea, \u003ca href=\"#Page_9\"\u003e9\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nJudgment, \u003ca href=\"#Page_133\"\u003e133\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emoral, \u003ca href=\"#Page_176\"\u003e176\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003estandards, \u003ca href=\"#Page_175\"\u003e175\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nKant, \u003ca href=\"#Page_50\"\u003e50\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_83\"\u003e83\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_98\"\u003e98\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_206\"\u003e206\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ehis philosophy and German character, \u003ca href=\"#Page_98\"\u003e98\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_99\"\u003e99\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nKinship, \u003ca href=\"#Page_62\"\u003e62\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nKnowledge, conception as beholding, \u003ca href=\"#Page_115\"\u003e115\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003edegrees, \u003ca href=\"#Page_108\"\u003e108\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eempirical as organ of imagination, \u003ca href=\"#Page_73\"\u003e73\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_74\"\u003e74\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eexisting practice, \u003ca href=\"#Page_112\"\u003e112\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emodern view of right way to get it, \u003ca href=\"#Page_113\"\u003e113\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003epositive, \u003ca href=\"#Page_12\"\u003e12\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003epositive vs. tradition, \u003ca href=\"#Page_16\"\u003e16\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003epractical and operative, \u003ca href=\"#Page_121\"\u003e121\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_122\"\u003e122\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esensations and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_87\"\u003e87\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_88\"\u003e88\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_89\"\u003e89\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003espectator conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_112\"\u003e112\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_117\"\u003e117\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\"Knowledge is power,\" \u003ca href=\"#Page_29\"\u003e29\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_42\"\u003e42\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_51\"\u003e51\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nLaw, \u003ca href=\"#Page_61\"\u003e61\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_64\"\u003e64\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003efreedom and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_207\"\u003e207\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ereason and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_98\"\u003e98\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003e\u003ci\u003eSee also\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Final_good\"\u003eFinal good\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nLearning, Bacon\u0027s three kinds, \u003ca href=\"#Page_29\"\u003e29\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nLicentiousness, \u003ca href=\"#Page_163\"\u003e163\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nLife, \u003ca href=\"#Page_167\"\u003e167\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_211\"\u003e211\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eenvironment and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_84\"\u003e84\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_85\"\u003e85\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nLiterary culture, \u003ca href=\"#Page_39\"\u003e39\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nLocke, \u003ca href=\"#Page_35\"\u003e35\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_50\"\u003e50\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_81\"\u003e81\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_89\"\u003e89\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_152\"\u003e152\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ephilosophic empiricism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_82\"\u003e82\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nLogic, a science and an art, \u003ca href=\"#Page_135\"\u003e135\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eapparatus, \u003ca href=\"#Page_20\"\u003e20\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_21\"\u003e21\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003echaracter, \u003ca href=\"#Page_132\"\u003e132\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_134\"\u003e134\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_221\" id=\"Page_221\"\u003e[Pg 221]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eimportance, \u003ca href=\"#Page_138\"\u003e138\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ein morals and politics, \u003ca href=\"#Page_138\"\u003e138\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003einconsistencies, \u003ca href=\"#Page_134\"\u003e134\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003enew, \u003ca href=\"#Page_36\"\u003e36\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eof discovery, \u003ca href=\"#Page_33\"\u003e33\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eof discovery vs. that of argumentation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_31\"\u003e31\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003etheory, chaotic state, \u003ca href=\"#Page_133\"\u003e133\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nLogical system, \u003ca href=\"#Page_9\"\u003e9\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nLotze, \u003ca href=\"#Page_134\"\u003e134\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMaking a living, \u003ca href=\"#Page_211\"\u003e211\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMan, perfectibility, \u003ca href=\"#Page_49\"\u003e49\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eprimitive, \u003ca href=\"#Page_4\"\u003e4\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_5\"\u003e5\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esavage and civilized, \u003ca href=\"#Page_85\"\u003e85\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003etool-maker, \u003ca href=\"#Page_71\"\u003e71\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMarcus Aurelius, \u003ca href=\"#Page_106\"\u003e106\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMaterialism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_50\"\u003e50\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_70\"\u003e70\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_73\"\u003e73\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_171\"\u003e171\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_182\"\u003e182\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMathematics, \u003ca href=\"#Page_137\"\u003e137\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_149\"\u003e149\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMatter, \u003ca href=\"#Page_72\"\u003e72\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_211\"\u003e211\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMeans and ends, \u003ca href=\"#Page_72\"\u003e72\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_73\"\u003e73\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMechanics, \u003ca href=\"#Page_67\"\u003e67\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_69\"\u003e69\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eGreeks and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_67\"\u003e67\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMechanism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_211\"\u003e211\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMechanisation of nature, \u003ca href=\"#Page_71\"\u003e71\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_72\"\u003e72\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMediaeval Christianity, \u003ca href=\"#Page_17\"\u003e17\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_19\"\u003e19\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_126\"\u003e126\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMeliorism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_178\"\u003e178\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMemory, \u003ca href=\"#Page_1\"\u003e1\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_6\"\u003e6\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_103\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eemotional character, \u003ca href=\"#Page_2\"\u003e2\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eindividual and group, \u003ca href=\"#Page_8\"\u003e8\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eprimitive, \u003ca href=\"#Page_3\"\u003e3\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMetaphysics, \u003ca href=\"#Page_17\"\u003e17\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_124\"\u003e124\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_126\"\u003e126\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMethods, \u003ca href=\"#Page_149\"\u003e149\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esocial philosophy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_193\"\u003e193\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003etrue, \u003ca href=\"#Page_32\"\u003e32\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMiddle Ages, \u003ca href=\"#Page_47\"\u003e47\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_64\"\u003e64\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_132\"\u003e132\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMilitary art, \u003ca href=\"#Page_15\"\u003e15\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMill, J. S., \u003ca href=\"#Page_132\"\u003e132\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMind, pure, \u003ca href=\"#Page_111\"\u003e111\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMiracles, \u003ca href=\"#Page_125\"\u003e125\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMistakes, \u003ca href=\"#Page_175\"\u003e175\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nModern thought, \u003ca href=\"#Page_52\"\u003e52\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eBacon as founder, \u003ca href=\"#Page_28\"\u003e28\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eearly, \u003ca href=\"#Page_49\"\u003e49\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_50\"\u003e50\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003e\u003ci\u003eSee also\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Thought\"\u003eThought\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMohammedans, \u003ca href=\"#Page_39\"\u003e39\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMoral ends, \u003ca href=\"#Page_169\"\u003e169\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMoral life, \u003ca href=\"#Page_165\"\u003e165\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMoral science. \u003ci\u003eSee under\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Science\"\u003eScience\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMorality, pragmatic rule, \u003ca href=\"#Page_163\"\u003e163\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003estandard of judgment, \u003ca href=\"#Page_176\"\u003e176\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nMorals, \u003ca href=\"#Page_126\"\u003e126\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_169\"\u003e169\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003epolitics and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_197\"\u003e197\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nNational state, \u003ca href=\"#Page_200\"\u003e200\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eend or instrument, \u003ca href=\"#Page_202\"\u003e202\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_203\"\u003e203\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003erôle of the modern, \u003ca href=\"#Page_201\"\u003e201\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nNationalistic movement, \u003ca href=\"#Page_201\"\u003e201\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nNatural Science. \u003ci\u003eSee under\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Science\"\u003eScience\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nNaturalism and humanism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_174\"\u003e174\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nNature, contrast of ancient and modern conceptions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_53\"\u003e53\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_54\"\u003e54\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003einquiry into, \u003ca href=\"#Page_32\"\u003e32\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_37\"\u003e37\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_48\"\u003e48\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_49\"\u003e49\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eloss of poetry when considered as mechanism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_69\"\u003e69\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eprofound change in man\u0027s attitude to, \u003ca href=\"#Page_115\"\u003e115\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003evalue of mechanisation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_71\"\u003e71\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_72\"\u003e72\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eweb imposed on, \u003ca href=\"#Page_35\"\u003e35\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_36\"\u003e36\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nNeglect, \u003ca href=\"#Page_97\"\u003e97\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nNeo-Platonism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_111\"\u003e111\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nNew World, \u003ca href=\"#Page_39\"\u003e39\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nNon-being, \u003ca href=\"#Page_107\"\u003e107\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nNoumenal reality, \u003ca href=\"#Page_23\"\u003e23\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003ci\u003eNous\u003c/i\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_36\"\u003e36\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nObliviscence of the disagreeable, \u003ca href=\"#Page_103\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nObservation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_140\"\u003e140\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nOptimism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_178\"\u003e178\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nOpportunity, \u003ca href=\"#Page_211\"\u003e211\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nOrganic society, \u003ca href=\"#Page_187\"\u003e187\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nOrganisms, \u003ca href=\"#Page_86\"\u003e86\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nOrganisation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_206\"\u003e206\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_207\"\u003e207\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nOriental nations, \u003ca href=\"#Page_127\"\u003e127\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nOrigin of philosophies, \u003ca href=\"#Page_5\"\u003e5\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_18\"\u003e18\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_24\"\u003e24\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_25\"\u003e25\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPantheon, Greek, \u003ca href=\"#Page_105\"\u003e105\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPast, \u003ca href=\"#Page_212\"\u003e212\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPerfectibility of mankind, \u003ca href=\"#Page_49\"\u003e49\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPerfection, \u003ca href=\"#Page_177\"\u003e177\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPersonality, \u003ca href=\"#Page_47\"\u003e47\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_189\"\u003e189\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_209\"\u003e209\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPersuasion, \u003ca href=\"#Page_31\"\u003e31\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPessimism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_178\"\u003e178\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPhariseeism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_176\"\u003e176\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_222\" id=\"Page_222\"\u003e[Pg 222]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPhenomenal reality, \u003ca href=\"#Page_23\"\u003e23\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPhilosophy, emancipation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_123\"\u003e123\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003efunction, \u003ca href=\"#Page_111\"\u003e111\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_122\"\u003e122\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003efuture aim and scope, \u003ca href=\"#Page_26\"\u003e26\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ehard and fast alternatives of English and German schools, \u003ca href=\"#Page_99\"\u003e99\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_100\"\u003e100\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ehistory, \u003ca href=\"#Page_25\"\u003e25\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eopportunities, \u003ca href=\"#Page_49\"\u003e49\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eorigin, \u003ca href=\"#Page_5\"\u003e5\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_18\"\u003e18\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_24\"\u003e24\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_25\"\u003e25\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003epractical nature, \u003ca href=\"#Page_121\"\u003e121\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eproper province, \u003ca href=\"#Page_21\"\u003e21\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_124\"\u003e124\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ework, \u003ca href=\"#Page_18\"\u003e18\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPhysician, \u003ca href=\"#Page_168\"\u003e168\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPhysics, \u003ca href=\"#Page_75\"\u003e75\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPlato, \u003ca href=\"#Page_13\"\u003e13\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_14\"\u003e14\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_17\"\u003e17\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_19\"\u003e19\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_188\"\u003e188\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_205\"\u003e205\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003edramatic sense, \u003ca href=\"#Page_15\"\u003e15\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eexperience, \u003ca href=\"#Page_79\"\u003e79\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_92\"\u003e92\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eideas, ideal realm, \u003ca href=\"#Page_105\"\u003e105\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eon change, \u003ca href=\"#Page_107\"\u003e107\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esocial arts, \u003ca href=\"#Page_94\"\u003e94\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eultimate reality, \u003ca href=\"#Page_106\"\u003e106\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPleasure, \u003ca href=\"#Page_181\"\u003e181\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPlotinus, \u003ca href=\"#Page_106\"\u003e106\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPluralism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_204\"\u003e204\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPoetry, \u003ca href=\"#Page_7\"\u003e7\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_8\"\u003e8\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_103\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_212\"\u003e212\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPolitical changes, \u003ca href=\"#Page_43\"\u003e43\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPolitical organisation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_44\"\u003e44\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPolitics, \u003ca href=\"#Page_125\"\u003e125\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emorals and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_197\"\u003e197\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emovements, \u003ca href=\"#Page_47\"\u003e47\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPossession of knowledge, \u003ca href=\"#Page_31\"\u003e31\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPotentiality, Aristotle\u0027s use of term, \u003ca href=\"#Page_57\"\u003e57\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_58\"\u003e58\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPractical and esthetic, \u003ca href=\"#Page_66\"\u003e66\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPragmatism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_38\"\u003e38\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPretensions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_21\"\u003e21\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPrimitive man, \u003ca href=\"#Page_4\"\u003e4\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPrinciples, \u003ca href=\"#Page_81\"\u003e81\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_163\"\u003e163\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ecriteria of experience, \u003ca href=\"#Page_48\"\u003e48\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nProbability, \u003ca href=\"#Page_21\"\u003e21\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nProduction, \u003ca href=\"#Page_181\"\u003e181\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nProgress, \u003ca href=\"#Page_42\"\u003e42\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_48\"\u003e48\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_116\"\u003e116\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_211\"\u003e211\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eBacon and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_32\"\u003e32\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_34\"\u003e34\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eeconomic and moral, contrast, \u003ca href=\"#Page_125\"\u003e125\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nProof, \u003ca href=\"#Page_20\"\u003e20\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nProperty, \u003ca href=\"#Page_182\"\u003e182\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_189\"\u003e189\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nProtestantism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_46\"\u003e46\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nProudhon, \u003ca href=\"#Page_189\"\u003e189\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPrussian State, \u003ca href=\"#Page_190\"\u003e190\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_201\"\u003e201\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPsychology, \u003ca href=\"#Page_83\"\u003e83\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_135\"\u003e135\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003echange in, \u003ca href=\"#Page_84\"\u003e84\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emalicious, \u003ca href=\"#Page_82\"\u003e82\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nPure reason, \u003ca href=\"#Page_78\"\u003e78\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nQuestioning, \u003ca href=\"#Page_17\"\u003e17\u003c/a\u003e. \u003ci\u003eSee also\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Inquiry\"\u003eInquiry\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRadicalism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_18\"\u003e18\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_19\"\u003e19\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_100\"\u003e100\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRank, \u003ca href=\"#Page_63\"\u003e63\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRationalism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_97\"\u003e97\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003erigidity, \u003ca href=\"#Page_98\"\u003e98\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRationalists \u003ca href=\"#Page_87\"\u003e87\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_88\"\u003e88\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_89\"\u003e89\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRationalisation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_97\"\u003e97\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_102\"\u003e102\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nReal, changed conceptions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_103\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eideal and, a human issue, \u003ca href=\"#Page_128\"\u003e128\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eproblem of relation to the ideal, \u003ca href=\"#Page_130\"\u003e130\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nReality, \u003ca href=\"#Page_23\"\u003e23\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_27\"\u003e27\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eclassic conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_105\"\u003e105\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003enomenal vs. phenomenal, \u003ca href=\"#Page_23\"\u003e23\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eultimate, \u003ca href=\"#Page_106\"\u003e106\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eultimate, one with ideality, \u003ca href=\"#Page_111\"\u003e111\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nReason, \u003ca href=\"#Page_83\"\u003e83\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_174\"\u003e174\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eas a faculty separate from experience, \u003ca href=\"#Page_95\"\u003e95\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eas re-adjusting intelligence, \u003ca href=\"#Page_96\"\u003e96\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003echanged conceptions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_77\"\u003e77\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nReasoning, \u003ca href=\"#Page_32\"\u003e32\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nReconstruction of philosophy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_52\"\u003e52\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eessential, \u003ca href=\"#Page_51\"\u003e51\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ehistorical factors, \u003ca href=\"#Page_28\"\u003e28\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ein moral conceptions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_161\"\u003e161\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003escientific factor, \u003ca href=\"#Page_53\"\u003e53\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esocial philosophy and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_187\"\u003e187\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003especific present problem, \u003ca href=\"#Page_43\"\u003e43\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003evalue of a solution of the dilemma of reason and experience, \u003ca href=\"#Page_101\"\u003e101\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRe-creation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_51\"\u003e51\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_180\"\u003e180\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nReform, \u003ca href=\"#Page_179\"\u003e179\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_180\"\u003e180\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003estarting-point, \u003ca href=\"#Page_196\"\u003e196\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRelativity of sensations, \u003ca href=\"#Page_88\"\u003e88\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nReligion, \u003ca href=\"#Page_103\"\u003e103\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_211\"\u003e211\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_212\"\u003e212\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emovements, \u003ca href=\"#Page_47\"\u003e47\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nReligious freedom, \u003ca href=\"#Page_46\"\u003e46\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nReligious spirit, \u003ca href=\"#Page_210\"\u003e210\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRenaissance, \u003ca href=\"#Page_29\"\u003e29\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nResearch, \u003ca href=\"#Page_42\"\u003e42\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eco-operative, \u003ca href=\"#Page_37\"\u003e37\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nResponsibility, \u003ca href=\"#Page_163\"\u003e163\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRevolution of thought, \u003ca href=\"#Page_60\"\u003e60\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRights and duties, \u003ca href=\"#Page_207\"\u003e207\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_223\" id=\"Page_223\"\u003e[Pg 223]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRome, \u003ca href=\"#Page_9\"\u003e9\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRuler and subject, \u003ca href=\"#Page_44\"\u003e44\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ein nature, \u003ca href=\"#Page_64\"\u003e64\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nRules of conduct, \u003ca href=\"#Page_165\"\u003e165\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSailors, \u003ca href=\"#Page_11\"\u003e11\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSalvation, \u003ca href=\"#Page_112\"\u003e112\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSantayana, George, on Locke, \u003ca href=\"#Page_82\"\u003e82\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSatisfaction, \u003ca href=\"#Page_157\"\u003e157\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSavage, \u003ca href=\"#Page_85\"\u003e85\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_176\"\u003e176\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nScholasticism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_30\"\u003e30\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003ca name=\"Science\" id=\"Science\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eScience, \u003ca href=\"#Page_11\"\u003e11\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_23\"\u003e23\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eadvance in, \u003ca href=\"#Page_53\"\u003e53\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eco-operative pursuit, \u003ca href=\"#Page_37\"\u003e37\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eestheticism and, reconciling, \u003ca href=\"#Page_127\"\u003e127\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ehuman value, \u003ca href=\"#Page_173\"\u003e173\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eindustry and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_38\"\u003e38\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_41\"\u003e41\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_42\"\u003e42\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003enatural, \u003ca href=\"#Page_42\"\u003e42\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_48\"\u003e48\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eopen world of, \u003ca href=\"#Page_61\"\u003e61\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eorigin, \u003ca href=\"#Page_12\"\u003e12\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003epicture of universe, \u003ca href=\"#Page_64\"\u003e64\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_65\"\u003e65\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003erelation to experience, \u003ca href=\"#Page_95\"\u003e95\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eseparation of natural and moral, \u003ca href=\"#Page_173\"\u003e173\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eso-called, \u003ca href=\"#Page_36\"\u003e36\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003etraditional, \u003ca href=\"#Page_30\"\u003e30\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nScientific revolution, \u003ca href=\"#Page_53\"\u003e53\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSelf-delusion, \u003ca href=\"#Page_140\"\u003e140\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSelf-interest, \u003ca href=\"#Page_194\"\u003e194\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_195\"\u003e195\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSensations, \u003ca href=\"#Page_84\"\u003e84\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eas points of readjustment, \u003ca href=\"#Page_89\"\u003e89\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003erelativity, \u003ca href=\"#Page_88\"\u003e88\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSenses, \u003ca href=\"#Page_84\"\u003e84\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_87\"\u003e87\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSentimentalism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_73\"\u003e73\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nShakespeare, \u003ca href=\"#Page_94\"\u003e94\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSlavery, \u003ca href=\"#Page_191\"\u003e191\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSocial belief, \u003ca href=\"#Page_26\"\u003e26\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSocial development, \u003ca href=\"#Page_43\"\u003e43\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSocial evils, \u003ca href=\"#Page_182\"\u003e182\u003c/a\u003e.\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003e\u003ci\u003eSee also\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Ills\"\u003eIlls\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSocial philosophy, reconstruction, \u003ca href=\"#Page_187\"\u003e187\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ereconstructive impact, \u003ca href=\"#Page_193\"\u003e193\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSocial unit, real, \u003ca href=\"#Page_204\"\u003e204\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSocial welfare, \u003ca href=\"#Page_180\"\u003e180\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSociality, \u003ca href=\"#Page_185\"\u003e185\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSociety, \u003ca href=\"#Page_200\"\u003e200\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_205\"\u003e205\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003edefect of usual theories about, \u003ca href=\"#Page_188\"\u003e188\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eindividuals and, three views, \u003ca href=\"#Page_187\"\u003e187\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_188\"\u003e188\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ephilosophy and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_124\"\u003e124\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSocrates, \u003ca href=\"#Page_14\"\u003e14\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_17\"\u003e17\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSoldiers, \u003ca href=\"#Page_139\"\u003e139\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSophists, \u003ca href=\"#Page_13\"\u003e13\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_14\"\u003e14\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSpace, \u003ca href=\"#Page_118\"\u003e118\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_119\"\u003e119\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_120\"\u003e120\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSpinoza, \u003ca href=\"#Page_106\"\u003e106\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nStandards, \u003ca href=\"#Page_175\"\u003e175\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nState, Aristotle\u0027s theory, \u003ca href=\"#Page_44\"\u003e44\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003econtract theory, \u003ca href=\"#Page_45\"\u003e45\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ecurrent conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_200\"\u003e200\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eimportance, \u003ca href=\"#Page_204\"\u003e204\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eindividual and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_190\"\u003e190\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_191\"\u003e191\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emodern, \u003ca href=\"#Page_44\"\u003e44\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eorigin, \u003ca href=\"#Page_44\"\u003e44\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esupremacy, \u003ca href=\"#Page_202\"\u003e202\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_203\"\u003e203\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSubject and ruler, \u003ca href=\"#Page_44\"\u003e44\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ein nature, \u003ca href=\"#Page_64\"\u003e64\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSuccess, \u003ca href=\"#Page_179\"\u003e179\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSuggestions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_3\"\u003e3\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_6\"\u003e6\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_7\"\u003e7\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003ci\u003eSummum Bonum.\u003c/i\u003e \u003ci\u003eSee\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Final_good\"\u003eFinal good\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSupernaturalism, \u003ca href=\"#Page_47\"\u003e47\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nSystem, \u003ca href=\"#Page_98\"\u003e98\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_99\"\u003e99\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nTelegraph, \u003ca href=\"#Page_120\"\u003e120\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nTelephone, \u003ca href=\"#Page_120\"\u003e120\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nTerminology, \u003ca href=\"#Page_21\"\u003e21\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nTheories, \u003ca href=\"#Page_144\"\u003e144\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_145\"\u003e145\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003evalidity, \u003ca href=\"#Page_156\"\u003e156\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nTheory and practice, \u003ca href=\"#Page_140\"\u003e140\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nThings as they are, \u003ca href=\"#Page_115\"\u003e115\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nThinking, habits, \u003ca href=\"#Page_74\"\u003e74\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_75\"\u003e75\u003c/a\u003e.\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003e\u003ci\u003eSee also\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Thought\"\u003eThought\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nThomas, St. \u003ci\u003eSee\u003c/i\u003e \u003ca href=\"#Aquinas\"\u003eAquinas\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003ca name=\"Thought\" id=\"Thought\"\u003eThought\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_117\"\u003e117\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003egood and bad thinking, \u003ca href=\"#Page_136\"\u003e136\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003einstrumental nature, \u003ca href=\"#Page_145\"\u003e145\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_146\"\u003e146\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eits origin in difficulties, \u003ca href=\"#Page_138\"\u003e138\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_139\"\u003e139\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ekinds, \u003ca href=\"#Page_135\"\u003e135\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003elogic and, \u003ca href=\"#Page_134\"\u003e134\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eplace, \u003ca href=\"#Page_96\"\u003e96\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003esystems, \u003ca href=\"#Page_145\"\u003e145\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nTolerance, \u003ca href=\"#Page_46\"\u003e46\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nTradition, \u003ca href=\"#Page_14\"\u003e14\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003epositive knowledge vs., \u003ca href=\"#Page_16\"\u003e16\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nTransitoriousness, \u003ca href=\"#Page_106\"\u003e106\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nTravel, \u003ca href=\"#Page_39\"\u003e39\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_40\"\u003e40\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nTrouble, \u003ca href=\"#Page_138\"\u003e138\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_140\"\u003e140\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nTruth, as utility, \u003ca href=\"#Page_157\"\u003e157\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003edefining, \u003ca href=\"#Page_159\"\u003e159\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_160\"\u003e160\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003elogical conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_156\"\u003e156\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_157\"\u003e157\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eold and new, \u003ca href=\"#Page_33\"\u003e33\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_34\"\u003e34\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003epragmatic conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_156\"\u003e156\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_159\"\u003e159\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003etest of, nature of, \u003ca href=\"#Page_155\"\u003e155\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_166\"\u003e166\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003ewhy the modern conception is offensive, \u003ca href=\"#Page_157\"\u003e157\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_158\"\u003e158\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan class=\"pagenum\"\u003e\u003ca name=\"Page_224\" id=\"Page_224\"\u003e[Pg 224]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nUnity, \u003ca href=\"#Page_108\"\u003e108\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nUniversal, \u003ca href=\"#Page_64\"\u003e64\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nUniverse, closed conception, \u003ca href=\"#Page_54\"\u003e54\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nUtilitarianism, defects, \u003ca href=\"#Page_181\"\u003e181\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emerit, \u003ca href=\"#Page_180\"\u003e180\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003eneed of reconstruction, \u003ca href=\"#Page_183\"\u003e183\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nUtility, \u003ca href=\"#Page_157\"\u003e157\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nValves, \u003ca href=\"#Page_15\"\u003e15\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nVerification, \u003ca href=\"#Page_156\"\u003e156\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nVirtues, \u003ca href=\"#Page_164\"\u003e164\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nVision, \u003ca href=\"#Page_21\"\u003e21\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nWar, \u003ca href=\"#Page_204\"\u003e204\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nWar, world, lesson, \u003ca href=\"#Page_129\"\u003e129\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003enationalistic phase, \u003ca href=\"#Page_201\"\u003e201\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003e\"real\" and \"ideal\" in, \u003ca href=\"#Page_128\"\u003e128\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nWealth, \u003ca href=\"#Page_40\"\u003e40\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_42\"\u003e42\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_125\"\u003e125\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nWind, \u003ca href=\"#Page_11\"\u003e11\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nWork, \u003ca href=\"#Page_181\"\u003e181\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nWorkingmen, \u003ca href=\"#Page_139\"\u003e139\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nWorld, closed and open conceptions, \u003ca href=\"#Page_54\"\u003e54\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#Page_60\"\u003e60\u003c/a\u003e-\u003ca href=\"#Page_61\"\u003e61\u003c/a\u003e;\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003emodern conception as material for change, \u003ca href=\"#Page_114\"\u003e114\u003c/a\u003e;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cspan style=\"margin-left: 1em;\"\u003enomenal and phenomenal, \u003ca href=\"#Page_23\"\u003e23\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cdiv class=\"notebox\"\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ch4\u003eTranscriber\u0027s Notes:\u003c/h4\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003cp\u003eTypos corrected:\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; (Chapter III) \"Home Faber\" to \"Homo Faber\"\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; (Index entry) \"Summum Conum\" to \"Summum Bonum\"\r\n\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\r\nThe text is in American-English but the Index seems to be done in British-English.\u003cbr /\u003e\r\nBelow are some words in the Index which are different from the text:\u003cbr /\u003e\r\n\u003c/p\u003e\r\n\r\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"4\" cellspacing=\"0\" summary=\"\"\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth\u003eINDEX\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth\u003eTEXT\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd\u003edramatisation\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd\u003edramatization\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd\u003elabour\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd\u003elabor\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd\u003emediaeval\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd\u003emedieval\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd\u003eGeneralisations\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd\u003eGeneralizations\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd\u003emechanisation\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd\u003emechanization (2 instances)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd\u003eorganisation\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd\u003eorganization (2 instances)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd\u003eRationalisation\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd\u003eRationalization\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd\u003enomenal\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd\u003enoumenal (2 instances)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\r\n\u003c/table\u003e\r\n\u003c/div\u003e\r\n\u003c/article\u003e"}],"SectionSequence":["Back Link","Work Title","Deck","Author","Period","Era","Composition","Date Note","Region","Terra Avita","Terra Avita Region","Modern Country","Original Title","Language","Primary Discipline","Secondary Discipline","Tradition","Full Versions","Core Thesis","Classification","Arguments","Influence","Significance","Evidence Note","Full Text"],"Counts":{"ContextCards":3,"GeoCards":4,"DisciplineCards":2,"Links":11,"Sections":25,"Styles":3,"Scripts":1}}